Motivational Factors for Undergraduate Students During COVID-19 Remote Learning

Abstract

Pedagogical practices use support of empirical research conducted on students learning in-person, but traditional methods of teaching might not work in times of rapid changes. Globally, courses have switched to online/remote learning and the transition has created challenges to student achievement. The unexpected public safety hazards shifted research focus on the impact of remote learning during COVID-19. Previous interventions including positive reinforcement, negative punishment, perceived control, optimism, and factors of self-determination as single constructs have been used to increase student motivation and engagement. The literature reviewed provides an overview of the impact of previous motivation interventions and the theories used to examine students’ motivation. Future implications to design courses incorporating these key five focuses are ideal for student achievement in remote learning.

The COVID-19 pandemic mandated an abrupt shift from person-to-person learning to remote learning (Garris & Fleck, 2020; Huang & Wang, 2022; Sharaievska et al., 2022). The crisis negatively affected learning experiences for students coping with mercurial and unprecedented events and has caused a lot of emotional distress (Bao, 2020), specifically, reports of higher levels of stress. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused individuals to alter many aspects of their lives. Studies that have been conducted highlight the impact of quarantine and physical distancing on the mental health of individuals (Giallonardo et al., 2020; Zhang & Ma, 2020). A survey promoted by 35 research organizations in Europe, North Africa, West Asia, and the Americas reveals psychosocial strain caused by COVID-19 and home confinement (Ammar et al., 2020).

These higher levels of stress are associated with education and access to healthcare (APA, 2020). More specifically, managing online learning environments is a major source of anxiety. A national survey reported a majority of students’ college choice depends on resources available due to insecurities with food and shelter; the remaining portion of students report opting out of returning to college until in-person instruction is offered (Garris & Fleck, 2020). Another annual Stress in America poll has shown that parents report stress levels related to coronavirus to be 6.7 compared to 4.9 before the pandemic (APA, 2020).

Instructors, like their students, experience the stressor of the pandemic. Outside of their professional lives, the instructors have personal stress and crisis to manage. Rapid transition to remote learning has negatively impacted instructors because prior to the pandemic a majority of educators used technology for simple tasks like uploading assignments and sharing announcements; educators with little proficiency in using technology to deliver instruction struggle with the differences this is called digital disconnect (Guppy et al., 2021). Digital disconnect varies across institutions depending on an instructor's technical proficiency, and there were many instructors who reported satisfaction with remote learning transitions (Guppy et al., 2021). Efforts to curb the spread of COVID-19 and improve academic outcomes are growing trends in research.

The first-year experience of college can impact student success in higher education because of susceptibility to high-failure and drop-out rates (Hamm et al., 2019; Parker et al., 2018). A large body of literature focuses on student goal achievement and retention. One aim is to help students to increase their motivation to form positive routines (e.g., health-conscious behavior, academic scholarship, and professionalism; Gavrilova et al., 2019). Co-occurring risks derive from maladaptive coping skills that arise from academic failure (Hamm et al., 2019). When students are faced with multiple failures, they become discouraged and disengaged. Goal engagement applies behavior (action) and cognition (introspection) for increasing motivation (Hamm et al., 2019). Student engagement is connected with goal orientation and motivational factors. The application of negative punishment and positive reinforcement gained support from behavioral therapy methods relative to changing behavior (Gavrilova et al., 2019). Few studies have examined the effectiveness of goal engagement treatment for remote learning or its effect on students with co-occurring risk factors (Hamm et al., 2019). Online courses designed with motivation enhancement treatments are effective in improving at-risk students’ academic performances (Hamm et al., 2019).

In addition to the goal-centered motivational treatments, attribution-based motivation intervention/attribution retraining (AR) studies focused on co-occurring risks in online college students with successful results, yet few studies have addressed multiple failure risks (Parker et al., 2018). The theoretical structure for implementing cooperative learning will need to be revisited because of the hybrid changes in learning (Baloche & Brody, 2017). In breakout rooms, instructors are limited to observing the quality of student engagement, off-task discourse, equitable interaction, and overall productivity. A goal of cooperative learning is to build a sense of community accomplishment and shift away from individual accomplishment to reduce competition among peers (Baloche & Brody, 2017). Asynchronous-designed courses are self-guided versus synchronous courses which offer peer interaction. Each design might yield different results in the context of cooperative learning.

Students learning in isolation may have difficulty gaining a social interdependence and understanding shared goals may be ominous without the physical presence of peers (Baloche & Brody, 2017). Instructors introduced to the implementation of cooperative learning felt they could confidently include the pedagogical practice in their curriculum, but later faced challenges because of the pressure of standardized learning requirements; barriers to learning during COVID-19 create new challenges for the implementation and sustainability of cooperative learning (Baloche & Brody, 2017).

A traditional approach used to motivate students is the practice of grade retention (keeping a failing student from passing into the next grade level) which is still widely accepted by institutions to urge course completion (Kretschmann et al., 2019). However, longitudinal data identifies that grade-retained students do not achieve higher in their education, but notes the tactic as a motivational factor provides an additional variable for understanding student engagement (Kretschmann et al., 2019).

Two years since institutions have transitioned to remote learning because of the COVID-19 pandemic and students still struggle to adapt to new remote instruction. Students report dissatisfaction with remote learning experiences pertaining to lack of motivation, interest, enjoyment, and course quality (Garris & Fleck, 2020; Sharaievska et al., 2022). The purpose of this literature review is to examine motivation and the effects of increasing student engagement using motivation interventions/treatments.

Positive Reinforcement and Negative Punishment

Evaluating classes completed in spring of 2020, students report negative experiences with learning with positive reports of schedule flexibility (Garris & Fleck, 2020). Cognitive-behavioral approaches to promote motivation show promising results with student engagement using theories that focus on goal orientation and engagement. Students’ participation increases according to positive communication and personal interests (Garris & Fleck, 2020). Motivation driven by reward or consequence is supported by the incentive theory of motivation posits behavior is driven by reward and the drive theory assumes actions to reduce or avoid unfavorable experiences (Gavrilova et al., 2019). The theory of approach–avoidance motivation combines incentive and drive for goal achievement (Gavrilova et al., 2019). Approach–avoidance predicts goal orientation. Students motivated to approach goals engage in activities that meet personal interest while avoidant students disengage when experiencing poor/negative communication.

Furthermore, incentives and undesirable outcomes influence students’ choices to approach or avoid academic engagement. Gavrilova et al. (2019) compare the effectiveness of negative or positive consequences to accomplish goals in online course settings concluding that positive consequences encourage completion of goals, and explicit awareness of consequences encourages motivation. The subjectivity of a student's awareness can change expected outcomes when relying on incentives or punishment. Situations can shift motivation orientation to achieve desired goals (Gavrilova et al., 2019). Grade retention aims to offer low-achieving students an equal opportunity to learn with their peers by closing learning gaps arguing that students are motivated to not fall behind in school (Kretschmann et al., 2019).

Nonetheless, exploring the effects of grade retention on motivating student success is relevant. Negative consequences might influence higher attraction to incentive motivation (Gavrilova et al., 2019). On the contrary, negative punishment using grade retention shows a significant decline in student motivation and engagement with little evidence supporting that grade retention encourages student success (Kretschmann et al., 2019). A high degree of caution is needed during the COVID-19 pandemic when considering the use of negative punishments to engage students. Awareness of negative consequences has no significant effect on mood; although, there are arguments supporting that grade retention leads to psychosocial distress and stereotyping of students (Kretschmann et al., 2019). Students retained with lower socioeconomic factors and learning ability create long-term stigmas toward low-achieving students (Kretschmann et al., 2019). Grade retention is most effective when students become aware of retention decisions after the semester has ended to avoid declines in student engagement; receiving additional support from instructors improves academic success (Gavrilova et al., 2019; Kretschmann et al., 2019). Positive communication might serve as a positive reinforcement measure offering students a sense of closure.

Feelings of distance impact autonomy and classroom discourse in remote learning (Garris & Fleck, 2020). Communicating and affirming care for student needs produces a warmer classroom climate. Faculty that promote self-care and emotional well-being enhance students’ learning experiences and mitigate negative preconceptions of remote instruction (Garris & Fleck, 2020). Expressing concerns for students’ needs reduce the feeling of separation and exclusion. Boredom arises from lack of engagement, self-discipline, and challenge; interest and enjoyment along with course flexibility are reported to increase student motivation (Parker et al., 2018; Garris & Fleck, 2020).

Optimism and Perceived Control

Levels of optimism and perceived control (PC) offer insight into increasing motivation by supporting groups of students at greater risk of academic challenges that begin in high school. “Perceived control (PC), which refers to the subjective construal of one's capacity to influence and predict life circumstances” (Skinner, 1996, as cited in Parker et al., 2018, p. 177). Student failures can be attributed to an external locus of control. Attributional-based motivation/AR proves beneficial in single risk factors involving overconfidence, fixed mindset, and self-punitiveness; optimistic mindsets increase motivation to accomplish and maintain goals by aiding students to overcome failure (Parker et al., 2018; Gavrilova et al., 2019; Hamm et al., 2019). Despite overwhelming reports of negative effects, the pandemic has had on students’ mental well-being and motivation, some students report positive effects on their PC; there are various factors for students responding positively to the rapid changes of the pandemic, one is these students have growth mindset perspectives (Sharaievska et al., 2022). A greater understanding of these cognitive factors could lead to improved motivational treatments and online course designs.

High school grades serve as a predictor for academic achievement, yet there are few studies that apply motivation interventions to adolescent learning (Hamm et al., 2019). AR as motivation intervention reduces boredom, enhancing PC and student engagement (Parker et al., 2018). The COVID-19 pandemic challenged student engagement by limiting the motivational reinforcements of in-person instruction (e.g., student–teacher interaction, peer support, and tutoring). Hamm et al. (2019) found low optimism promoted lower levels of efficacy and autonomy among students aiming to measure the outcomes of applying motivational treatments to an online course focusing on students with a greater risk of academic challenges. Increasing goal engagement in remote courses can increase overall academic achievements. Students with high boredom not receiving AR (another form of motivation treatment) are more likely to drop out than those involved in programs structured to retrain attributions (Parker et al., 2018).

Goal engagement treatment is promising for academic success, preparing students for work, regulating mood, and promoting wellness (Hamm et al., 2019). There are other covarying factors that impact levels of motivation. Motivation to learn online decreases with technology-based anxiety, ensuring that students have resources to navigate technology during online instruction promotes self-efficacy (Garris & Fleck, 2020). Additional steps to reduce anxiety related to technology are an important consideration for instructors' course preparation. Online courses promote diverse-independent learning experiences for students and the classroom climate is often perceived to be difficult (Hamm et al., 2019). Involving cultural diversity in online course structure builds student engagement (Garris & Fleck, 2020).

The goal engagement framework consists of promoting behavior to achieve goals (e.g., time management, problem-solving, and effective study techniques) and self-disciplinary actions—reaffirming the positive consequences of achieving goals (Hamm et al., 2019). Online administration of treatment offers accessibility to a broader range of students (Hamm et al., 2019). Motivation is driven by factors such as positive reinforcement, negative punishment, optimism, and PC. While a large body of research focuses on asynchronous courses, few studies focus on synchronous instruction (Garris & Fleck, 2020).

Self-Determination

The abrupt changes in education have negatively impacted student motivation, engagement, and learning outcomes; these changes have resulted in dysfunctionality and poor academic performance (Besser et al., 2020; Huang & Wang, 2022). A suggested method of increasing student’s motivation for online courses is to examine the self-determination theory consisting of five components of focus including basic needs theory, organismic integration theory, goal contents theory, cognitive evaluation theory, and causality theory (Reeve, 2012). Although self-determination theory encompasses five subtheories, online learning requires higher levels of self-regulation and discipline to sustain motivation and basic needs play a crucial role in this sustainability (Huang & Wang, 2022; Schnyders & Lane, 2018). Basic needs theory outlines psychological, physical, and environmental conditions that need to be satisfied to maintain a learner's motivation and autonomy; educators aim to fulfill these basic needs with the quality of their classroom and curricula, but there is less control over these factors in online learning environments (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Huang & Wang, 2022; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Online learning can be accessed from various places and not all students have equal access to secure learning spaces. Students who reported that they lacked a dedicated learning space and quiet environments, also reported struggles with learning (Guppy et al., 2021). Internet access and issues with the internet negatively impact a student's learning experience (Guppy et al., 2021). Other basic needs impacted by online learning environments are relatedness (i.e., belonging) and engagement (i.e., psychological and emotional stimulation as well as, behavioral stimulation; Huang & Wang, 2022). Despite the environment having a strong effect on a student's self-determination, physical living arrangements (i.e., size and type of home) did not show a significant impact on students’ motivation to learn (Guppy et al., 2021).

Supporting students’ levels of autonomy increases cognitive engagement and self-management behaviors in online learning environments (Huang & Wang, 2022). However, attention to satisfying student cognition may neglect students' emotional needs (Huang & Wang, 2022). Online learning environments allow students the flexibility to explore learning strategies and resources to achieve a sense of mastery; the independence of formulating a unique learning routine promotes feelings of competency and critical thinking (Huang & Wang, 2022). Feelings of isolation motivate students to think deeply and master difficult skills (Huang & Wang, 2022).

Implications for Educators

The overarching goal is to increase student engagement in synchronously instructed courses. The COVID-19 pandemic contributes to a decrease in students' motivation and pedagogical practices focusing on these factors will benefit students. Courses designed to include positive reinforcement, negative punishment, PC, optimism, and factors of self-determination are ideal for academic success. There is an anticipation of a significant increase in student engagement for those participating in the motivation treatment compared to the control group.

The literature focusing on student motivation and engagement in a pandemic supports there is no single panacea for increasing academic achievement. Based on the articles reviewed in this paper, there are several suggestions that arise for future research and practice of enhancing students’ motivation to learn. One recommendation is to revisit theoretical frameworks for learning to incorporate the nuances that emerged with a remote learning environment. Another recommendation is to develop pedagogical practices that promote the use of technology and incorporate training for technological advancements. Tadros et al. (2021) focused on the effects of incarceration on partners, children, and other family members and suggested how relational telehealth could be used in corrections during the COVID-19 pandemic, including a discussion of ethical practices and the importance of collaborative TMH within corrections facilities. The ethical practices suggested in the article can be modified to serve students in higher education coping with the relational stressors of at-home learning. As COVID-19 cases decrease, a final suggestion is to implement policies and procedures that prepare for future responses to infectious disease outbreaks or natural disasters using data collected during the pandemic.

The aim of this paper is to showcase how it would be beneficial to instructors to consider course designs that target at-risk students’ PC. Courses designed to enhance perceived academic control create a setting for goal achievement, building autonomy, and course completion.

Future Directions

The use of motivation interventions may help to improve classroom climates in-person and virtually. Synchronous coursework designed for students to be self-driven may not be suitable for all groups of students. Developing various ways to aid instructors to develop novel pedagogical practices that implicitly target student motivation in course design might enhance student self-efficacy, achievement, and completion rates. Data collected from synchronous classes can be used to uncover new findings to expand on self-determination theory and broaden researchers’ understanding of learning diversity. For college students, relationship quality with family, peers, and romantic partners is a vital piece of overall well-being (Lane & Fink, 2015; Schnyders & Lane, 2018). Thus, newer studies may consider analyzing how these relationships impact motivation, specifically in terms of remote learning.

Policy changes removing negative punishment may be a beneficial consideration for servicing at-risk student populations. Identifying implicit discriminatory practices within academia, especially for students belonging to minoritized groups, may eliminate barriers to achievement. Few studies use qualitative methods to assess the impact course design has on students. Childcare was also an area of concern during the pandemic as schools went remote. There is a deficit in research regarding the caregiving aspect of the COVID-19 pandemic as the need for childcare changed as education and other services went remote (Wade et al., 2021). Future research might close gaps in the literature by using mix-methodologies. In the leap of two years, the COVID-19 pandemic persists, and synchronous learning has become normative in educational settings, but there is still work to be done to gain consistent system responses to the evolving changes in education.