Table 3.

Palm sugar processing techniques.

Processing techniques	Key feature	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference
Traditional processing	Long heating time (3–4 h), Dark brown sugar formed	Does not require skilling up of labour	Very dark colour, reduction in antioxidant and phenolic content, sucrose inversion, bitter taste of sugar	[20,24]
Spray drying	Short heating time at higher temperature	Low moisture content, convenient storage, higher phenolic content, higher antioxidant activity	Stickiness to spray dryer wall, undesirable lump formation, low yield	[20,24]
Membrane technology	Usage of ultrafiltration using membranes like ceramic membranes	Higher anti-oxidant activity	Chance of fouling, lesser phenolic content	[20]
Vacuum drying	Optimum efficiency at 40 °C for 3 h	Decreases phenolic compound and anti-oxidant loss, reduces sucrose inversion	Low efficiency, expensive	[27]