Table 2. Association of Maternal Metabolic Subgroup Membership With Neonatal and Offspring Adiposity During Early Childhood (Median Age 5 Years) Among Mother-Offspring Dyads.
| Offspring outcome, subgroup vs reference | Unadjusted | Adjusteda | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal demographics and lifestyle | Prepregnancy BMIb | GDMc | ||
| Neonatal | ||||
| Fat mass, % | ||||
| Reference | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] |
| High HDL-C | −0.36 (−0.98 to 0.26) | −0.39 (−1.00 to 0.23) | −0.38 (−0.99 to 0.23) | −0.38 (−1.01 to 0.25) |
| Dyslipidemic–high TG | 0.03 (−0.75 to 0.81) | −0.22 (−1.00 to 0.57) | −0.39 (−1.17 to 0.39) | −0.29 (−1.12 to 0.54) |
| Dyslipidemic–high FFA | −0.39 (−1.02 to 0.25) | −0.49 (−1.14 to 0.15) | −0.69 (−1.36 to −0.03) | −0.43 (−1.10 to 0.24) |
| IR-hyperglycemic | 1.34 (0.37 to 2.31) | 1.16 (0.16 to 2.17) | 0.60 (−0.42 to 1.61) | 1.02 (−0.02 to 2.07) |
| Birthweight, z score | ||||
| Reference | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] |
| High HDL-C | −0.02 (−0.15 to 0.12) | −0.06 (−0.19 to 0.07) | −0.06 (−0.19 to 0.07) | −0.04 (−0.17 to 0.10) |
| Dyslipidemic–high TG | −0.01 (−0.18 to 0.15) | −0.10 (−0.27 to 0.06) | −0.16 (−0.32 to 0.01) | −0.06 (−0.23 to 0.11) |
| Dyslipidemic–high FFA | −0.14 (−0.29 to 0.01) | −0.18 (−0.32 to −0.03) | −0.23 (−0.38 to −0.09) | −0.15 (−0.30 to 0.00) |
| IR-hyperglycemic | 0.15 (−0.07 to 0.38) | 0.12 (−0.10 to 0.33) | −0.04 (−0.26 to 0.18) | 0.13 (−0.09 to 0.35) |
| Childhood | ||||
| Fat mass, % | ||||
| Reference | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] |
| High HDL-C | 0.53 (−0.74 to 1.80) | 0.52 (−0.75 to 1.78) | 0.50 (−0.77 to 1.76) | 0.44 (−0.86 to 1.73) |
| Dyslipidemic–high TG | 1.70 (0.15 to 3.25) | 1.22 (−0.38 to 2.81) | 0.96 (−0.66 to 2.58) | 1.29 (−0.37 to 2.95) |
| Dyslipidemic–high FFA | 1.96 (0.45 to 3.47) | 2.07 (0.62 to 3.53) | 1.78 (0.27 to 3.28) | 2.27 (0.81 to 3.73) |
| IR-hyperglycemic | 4.27 (1.94 to 6.59) | 4.30 (2.03 to 6.56) | 3.40 (1.15 to 5.64) | 4.18 (1.80 to 6.55) |
| BMI, percentiled | ||||
| Reference | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference] | 0 [Reference |
| High HDL-C | 1.27 (−3.83 to 6.37) | 1.76 (−3.30 to 6.82) | 1.60 (−3.41 to 6.60) | 1.93 (−3.28 to 7.13) |
| Dyslipidemic–high TG | 3.96 (−2.65 to 10.58) | 0.88 (−5.52 to 7.27) | −2.41 (−8.81 to 3.99) | 2.12 (−4.45 to 8.69) |
| Dyslipidemic–high FFA | 3.72 (−2.54 to 9.98) | 1.47 (−4.65 to 7.59) | −1.87 (−8.10 to 4.37) | 2.00 (−4.30 to 8.29) |
| IR-hyperglycemic | 16.79 (8.38 to 25.20) | 13.22 (4.64 to 21.79) | 3.00 (−5.89 to 11.89) | 12.54 (3.59 to 21.49) |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; FFA, free fatty acid; GDM, gestational diabetes; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; IR, insulin resistant; TG, triglyceride.
a
Maternal demographics and lifestyle model adjusted for maternal race and ethnicity, education, parity, smoking, and age.
b
Prepregnancy BMI included the maternal demographics and lifestyle model plus prepregnancy BMI.
c
GDM included the maternal demographics and lifestyle model plus GDM.
d
BMI is calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared; percentiles in childhood according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reference.35