Table 3. Associations of Maternal Metabolic Subgroup, Prepregnancy Obesity, and Gestational Diabetes (GDM) With Offspring Obesity and High Fat Mass Percentage Among Mother-Offspring Dyads.
| In utero exposure | Childhood obesity, BMI ≥95th percentile, RR (95% CI) | Childhood fat mass % ≥95th percentile, unadjusted RR (95% CI) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Unadjusted | Adjusteda | ||
| Subgroup vs reference | |||
| Reference | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| High HDL-C | 1.0 (0.4-2.5) | 1.1 (0.4-2.8) | 2.6 (0.8-8.3) |
| Dyslipidemic–high TG | 1.3 (0.4-3.6) | 0.9 (0.3-2.4) | 1.3 (0.2-6.9) |
| Dyslipidemic–high FFA | 1.7 (0.7-4.0) | 1.2 (0.5-2.7) | 3.4 (1.0-11.3) |
| IR-hyperglycemic | 5.3 (2.4-11.4) | 3.4 (1.6-7.4) | 8.7 (2.7-27.8) |
| Maternal pregnancy complications vs none | |||
| Neither condition | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Prepregnancy obesity only | 2.1 (1.1-4.1) | 1.6 (0.8-3.2) | 3.0 (1.4-6.5) |
| GDM only | 3.0 (0.9-9.2) | 2.7 (0.8-8.9) | NAb |
| Obesity and GDM | 4.0 (1.1-14.8) | 3.3 (0.7-14.3) | 3.5 (0.5-23.9) |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; FFA, free fatty acid; HDL-C, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; IR, insulin resistant; NA, not applicable; TG, triglyceride.
a
Adjusted model includes maternal race and ethnicity, education, parity, smoking, and age.
b
Estimate not available because none of the women with GDM had offspring with fat mass percentages greater than or equal to the 95th percentile.