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. 2022 Dec 18;24(3):e13537. doi: 10.1111/obr.13537

TABLE 1.

Characteristics of studies included in meta‐analysis

Study and country Participant characteristics (mean [SD]) Duration Intervention Total energy intake distribution (%) a Compliance

Keim et al. (1997)

USA 37

n = 10; female only

Age: 29.4 (5.4) years

BMI: 28.0 (4.2) kg/m2

15 weeks (3‐week stabilization + 2 × 6‐week crossover interventions)

  • Laboratory conditions

  • Participants were randomized to either an earlier distributed diet or later distributed and all meals were provided at set times

Early: 35:35:15 + 15 after dinner

Late: 15:15:35 + 35 after dinner

 Intake was controlled for each participant as all food items were provided.

Jakubowicz et al. (2012)

Israel 40

n = 193; 115 = female, 78 = male

Age: 46.1 (7.3) years

BMI: 32.3 (1.8) kg/m2

16 + 16‐weeks follow‐up

  • Free‐living

  • Participants were advised to distribute their intake towards the morning or evening

Early: 43:36:21

Late: 21:36:43

 Body weight and daily dietary intake checklists were kept by participants for all food consumed. These were monitored every 4 weeks by a dietitian and counseling to ensure compliance was provided.

Jakubowicz et al. (2013)

Israel 41

n = 93; female only

Age: 45.8 (7.1) years

BMI: 32.2 (1.2) kg/m2

12 weeks

  • Free‐living

  • Participants advised to follow ~1400‐kcal meal plans distributed towards the morning or evening

Early: 50:36:14

Late: 14:36:50

 Weekly 3‐day food diaries were recorded; participants met with a dietitian biweekly to review these. Noncompliance was defined as ±10% or more deviation from recommended daily energy intake. Total noncompliant days were recorded per participant and divided by seven to determine a weekly percentage of noncompliance. Noncompliance of 43% or greater resulted in participant withdrawal.

Lombardo et al. (2014)

Italy 39

n = 36; female only

Age: 41 (16.4) years

BMI: 35.5 (4.8) kg/m2

12 weeks

  • Free‐living

  • Participants advised to consume an energy‐restricted diet (Mediterranean style)

Early: 70 for breakfast, morning tea and lunch, 30 for afternoon tea and dinner

Late: 55 for breakfast, morning tea and lunch, 45 for afternoon tea and dinner

 Participants were telephoned weekly by a dietitian to ensure compliance with the diet plans; they also completed 3‐day food diaries at baseline, weekly throughout the study, and at its completion.

Rabinovitz et al. (2014)

Israel 42

n = 59; female, male

Age: 46.0 (17.2) years

BMI: 32.4 (3.7) kg/m2

12 weeks

  • Free‐living

  • Participants were advised to consume isocaloric energy‐restricted diets with differing energy and macronutrient proportions at the breakfast meal

Early: 33:25:25 (fat and protein enriched)

Late: 13:33:33 (high carbohydrate)

Remaining energy as snacks

 Meetings with dietitian at 1‐ to 3‐week intervals to estimate adherence to diet and calorie intake. Participants were also asked to record daily intake via food diary three times every 2 weeks to assess compliance.

Madjd et al. (2016)

Iran 38

n = 80; female only

Age: 33.6 (7.0) years

BMI: 32.2 (2.3) kg/m2

12 weeks

  • Free‐living

  • Participants were advised to consume an energy‐restricted diet with the main meal (most energy dense) at either lunch or dinner

Early: 15:50:20 (+15 for snacks)

Late: 15:20:50 (+15 for snacks)

 Participants met with a dietitian every 2 weeks and presented them with diet diaries for that period. They also received phone calls every weekday during the intervention

Versteeg et al. (2018)

The Netherlands 35

n  = 23; male only

Age: 59.8 (8.0) years

BMI: 34.2 (3.9) kg/m 2

5 weeks (1‐week run‐in with weight maintenance diet followed by 4‐week energy‐restricted diet)

  • Free‐living

  • Participants were advised to consume an energy‐restricted diet distributed towards breakfast or dinner. Both breakfast and dinner were replaced with a supplement drink (Fresubin) or bar (Modifast protein plus)

Early: 50:35:15

Late: 15:35:50

 Weekly visits to the research unit for dietary monitoring and weight control. REE was performed weekly, and participants reported energy intake and meal timing via online food diary.

Raynor et al. (2018)

USA 34

n = 8; female only

Age: 53.1 (6.4) years

BMI: 36.0 (2.4) kg/m2

8 weeks

  • Free‐living

  • Participants were advised to follow an energy and fat restricted diet (1200–1500 kcal; <30% kcal from fat) distributed towards the morning or evening

Early: 50:30:20

Late: 20:30:50

 Participants self‐monitored their intake and 1 day/week was randomly selected by researchers to check adherence to diet plan. Meals consumed within one hour of prescribed time and ±50 kcal of energy goals were considered compliant.

Madjd et al. (2020)

Iran 36

N = 82; female only

Age: 35.0 (7.2) years

BMI: 32.8 (2.0) kg/m2

12 weeks

  • Free‐living

  • Participants were advised to follow an energy‐restricted diet with their final main meal to be consumed at either 1900–1930 or 2230–2300 h

Early: 15:50:20

Late: 15:50:20

Remaining energy split into snacks

 Participants completed logbooks that included their evening mealtime. Food diaries were completed at 0, 6, and 12 weeks. These were checked by a dietitian fortnightly. Noncompliance was defined as deviation from recommended evening mealtime on more than 10% of occasions.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; REE, resting energy expenditure.

a

Total energy intake shown as percentages split between the three main meals of the day (Breakfast:Lunch:Dinner).