TABLE 2.
Summary of study outcomes and results
| Study | Risk of bias | Completion/retention | Results (mean [standard deviation or interquartile range]) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Keim et al. (1997) 37 | High | 83% | Body weight (kg) | Morning mean change | Evening mean change | ||||
| −2.91 (0.08) | −3.69 (0.15) | ||||||||
| Jakubowicz et al. (2012) 40 | Moderate | 74% | Morning pretest | Posttest 16 weeks | Posttest 32 weeks | Evening pretest | Posttest 16 weeks | Posttest 32 weeks | |
| Body weight (kg) | 91.2 (9.8) | 77.6 (9.0) | 70.6 (8.7) | 90.4 (9.2) | 75.2 (8.1) | 86.9 (9.7) b | |||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 32.2 (1.9) | 27.4 (1.8) | 24.9 (1.9) | 32.3 (1.9) | 26.9 (1.7) | 30.9 (2.0) b | |||
| Waist circumference (cm) | 110.7 (3.1) | 103.3 (4.3) | 96.4 (5.3) | 110.4 (3.2) | 102.5 (4.3) | 108.7 (3.6) b | |||
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 2.0 (0.2) | 1.6 (0.1) | 1.4 (0.1) | 2.0 (0.3) | 1.5 (0.1) b | 2.0 (0.2) b | |||
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 5.5 (0.5) | 4.9 (0.3) | 4.6 (0.3) | 5.5 (0.5) | 4.9 (0.3) | 4.9 (0.5) b | |||
| LDL (mmol/L) | 4.1 (0.5) | 3.5 (0.3) | 3.2 (0.3) | 4.0 (0.5) | 3.4 (0.4) | 3.5 (0.5) | |||
| HDL (mmol/L) | 1.2 (0.1) | 1.3 (0.1) | 1.3 (0.1) | 1.2 (0.1) | 1.3 (0.1) | 1.2 (0.1) | |||
| Glucose (mg/dl) | 94.4 (7.0) | 86.2 (5.6) | 84.2 (4.6) | 94.6 (7.4) | 85.1 (6.7) | 95.5 (4.9) b | |||
| Insulin (μU/ml) | 21.7 (3.6) | 12.6 (3.4) | 8.9 (3.9) | 21.7 (3.6) | 13.9 (4.8) | 23.69 (3.8) b | |||
| HOMA‐IR | 5.0 (0.9) | 2.5 (0.5) | 1.6 (0.4) | 5.1 (0.9) | 2.4 (0.5) | 5.9 (0.9) b | |||
| Jakubowicz et al. (2013) 41 | Moderate | 79% | Morning pretest | Morning posttest | Mean change | Evening pretest | Evening posttest | Mean change | |
|
Body weight (kg) BMI (kg/m2) |
86.5 (0.7) 32.3 (0.2) |
77.8 (0.7) 29.2 (0.2) |
−8.7 (1.4) |
87.1 (0.7) 32.2 (0.2) |
83.5 (0.8) b 30.9 (0.2) b |
−3.6 (1.5) b | |||
| Waist circumference (cm) | 110.1 (0.40) | 101.4 (0.43) | 111.2 (0.41) | 107.6 (0.51) | |||||
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 2.0 (0.03) | 1.3 (0.02) | 2.0 (0.04) | 2.3 (0.04) b | |||||
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 5.6 (0.06) | 5.3 (0.06) | 5.7 (0.06) | 5.6 (0.05) b | |||||
| LDL (mmol/L) | 3.5 (0.06) | 3.4 (0.06) | 3.5 (0.06) | 3.4 (0.06) | |||||
| HDL (mmol/L) | 1.2 (0.02) | 1.3 (0.02) | 1.2 (0.02) | 1.2 (0.02) | |||||
| Glucose (mg/dl) | 94.6 (0.9) | 83.7 (0.7) | 92.9 (0.7) | 89 (0.9) b | |||||
| Insulin (mg/ml) | 20.2 (0.4) | 9.9 (0.2) | 18.6 (0.5) | 13.2 (0.2) b | |||||
| HOMA‐IR | 4.7 (0.1) | 2.0 (0) | 4.3 (0.1) | 2.9 (0.1) b | |||||
| Rabinovitz et al. (2014) 42 | Moderate | 77% |
Body weight (kg) BMI (kg/m2) |
Large breakfast pretest | Mean change | Small breakfast pretest | Mean change | ||
|
87.05 (12.2) 31.95 (3.7) |
−2.43 (0.46) −0/88 (0.7) |
89.23 (14.7) 32.8 (3.7) |
−1.86 (0.4) −0.69 (0.15) |
||||||
| Waist circumference (cm) | 106.8 (9.2) | −2.65 (0.66) | 105.8 (11.1) | −2.2 (0.47) | |||||
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.68 (0.64) | −0.03 (0.14) | 2.13 (2.23) | −0.16 (0.09) | |||||
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 4.6 (0.77) | −0.04 (0.13) | 4.7 (0.97) | 0.09 (0.11) | |||||
| LDL (mmol/L) | 2.8 (0.6) | 0.05 (0.18) | 2.7 (0.85) | 0.2 (0.12) | |||||
| HDL (mmol/L) | 1.1 (0.28) | 0.03 (0.002) | 1.2 (0.26) | 0.004 (0.02) | |||||
| Glucose (mmol/L) | 7.8 (2.0) | −0.5 (0.3) | 8.1 (3.0) | −0.3 (0.2) | |||||
| Insulin (μU/ml) | 17.58 (9.07) | −4.22 (1.37) | 16.45 (7.74) | −3.3 (1.13) | |||||
| HbA1c (%) | 6.9 (1) | −0.46 (0.15) | 6.85 (1.1) | −0.15 (0.07) b | |||||
| Lombardo et al. (2014) 39 | High | 85% |
Morning pretest Morning posttest |
Mean change |
Evening pretest Evening posttest |
Mean change | |||
|
Body weight (kg) BMI (kg/m2) |
94.2 (2.1) 35.8 (5.2) |
86.3 (1.9) 32.7 (2.3) |
−8.2 (3) −3.1 (0.2) |
88.2 (0.9) 35.1 (4.5) |
81.7 (0.9) 33.3 (3.9) |
−6.5 (3.4) b −1.8 (0.4) b |
|||
| Waist circumference (cm) | 100 (3) | 93 (4) | −7 (0.6) | 100 (5) | 95 (5) | −5 (0.3) b | |||
| Energy intake (kcal) | 2008 (67) | 1992 (89) | −12 | 1993 (87) | 1967 (95) | −26 | |||
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.3 (1.1–1.6) | 1.0 (0.8–1.1) | −0.3 (0.06) | 1.4 (1.1–1.8) | 1.2 (1.0–1.5) | −0.2 (0.03) | |||
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 5.1 (1.0) | 5.0 (0.8) | −0.2 (0.1) | 5.3 (1.1) | 5.1 (0.9) | −0.2 (0.1) | |||
| LDL (mmol/L) | 3.3 (0.5) | 3.2 (0.4) | −0.1 (0.1) | 3.3 (0.6) | 3.3 (0.5) | −0.03 (0.003) | |||
| HDL (mmol/L) | 1.2 (0.3) | 1.3 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.01) | 1.3 (0.4) | 1.3 (0.3) | 0.01 (0.01) b | |||
| Glucose (mmol/L) | 5.35 (0.66) | 5.21 (0.32) | −0.14 (0.06) | 5.12 (0.82) | 5.16 (0.57) | 0.04 (0.02) | |||
| Insulin (μU/ml) | 16.2 (12.4–19.1) | 9.5 (6.3–11.5) | −6.7 (1.4) | 17.3 (11.9–19.5) | 15.5 (11.3–18.7) | −1.8 (0.02) | |||
| HOMA‐IR | 4.12 (2.62) | 2.75 (1.34) | −1.37 (0.27) | 4.15 (2.51) | 3.41 (1.95) | −0.74 (0.12) b | |||
| Madjd et al. (2016) 38 | Moderate | 86% | Lunch pretest | Lunch posttest | Mean change | Dinner pretest | Dinner posttest | Mean change | |
| Body weight (kg) | 84.02 (7.25) | 78.28 (6.88) a | −5.73 (1.91) | 83.05 (6.98) | 78.75 (7.18) a | −4.31 (1.93) b | |||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 32.21 (2.24) | 30.02 (2.36) a | −2.21 (0.75) | 32.10 (2.31) | 30.45 (2.44) a | −1.67 (0.74) b | |||
| Waist circumference (cm) | 100 (7.98) | 94.38 (8.57) a | −6.05 (2.14) | 101 (8.3) | 95.75 (8.07) a | −5.33 (1.95) | |||
| Energy intake (kcal/day) | 2329 (264) | 1946 (257) | 2316 (260) | 1984 (191) | |||||
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.57 (0.27) | 1.41 (0.24) a | −0.15 (0.06) | 1.58 (0.24) | 1.43 (0.21) a | −0.13 (0.06) | |||
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 4.59 (0.46) | 4.22 (0.50) a | −0.38 (0.19) | 4.56 (0.48) | 4.27 (0.43) a | −0.32 (0.16) | |||
| LDL (mmol/L) | 2.66 (0.55) | 2.29 (0.58) a | −0.37 (0.20) | 2.64 (0.49) | 2.34 (0.45) a | −0.32 (0.16) | |||
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.22 (0.17) | 1.29 (0.16) a | −0.06 (0.04) | 1.2 (0.13) | 1.28 (−0.17) a | 0.07 (0.04) | |||
| Insulin (mU/L) | 14.04 (2.89) | 12.01 (2.91) a | −2.03 (1.07) | 13.7 (2.34) | 12.59 (2.33) a | −1.16 (0.68) b | |||
| HbA1c (%) | 5.4 (0.61) | 5.11 (0.57) a | −0.34 (0.19) | 5.36 (0.54) | 5.08 (0.49) a | −0.30 (0.16) | |||
| HOMA‐IR | 3.16 (0.42) | 2.49 (0.68) a | −0.68 (0.31) | 3.07 (0.64) | 2.62 (0.56) a | −0.46 (0.23) b | |||
| Versteeg et al. (2018) 35 | Moderate | 92% | Morning pretest | Posttest | Mean change | Evening pretest | Posttest | Mean change | |
| Body weight (kg) | 108.3 (13) | 101.4 (13) | 7 (1.4) | 111.2 (16.6) | 104.3 (16.3) | 6.8 (2.0) | |||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 34.2 (4.2) | 32.0 (4.2) | 34.3 (3.7) | 32.1 (3.8) | |||||
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.7 (0.82) | 0.93 (0.33) | 1.8 (0.92) | 0.98 (0.4) | |||||
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 5.4 (1.1) | 4.1 (0.61) | 5.4 (1.3) | 4.5 (0.79) | |||||
| LDL (mmol/L) | 3.5 (0.98) | 2.7 (0.6) | 3.4 (1.0) | 3.0 (0.71) | |||||
| HDL (mmol/L) | 1.2 (0.26) | 1.0 (0.18) | 1.2 (0.18) | 1.1 (0.15) | |||||
| Glucose (mmol/L) | 5.5 (0.83) | 4.7 (0.67) | 5.3 (0.88) | 4.9 (0.47) | |||||
| Insulin (pmol/L) | 120.5 (72.4) | 55.8 (41.9) | 110.2 (35.6) | 72.3 (24.6) | |||||
| Raynor et al. (2018) 34 | Moderate | 100% | Morning pretest | Mean change | Evening pretest | Mean change | |||
| Body weight (kg) | −7.55 (1.008) | −4.58 (1.144) b | |||||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 35.7 (4.8) | 36.3 (2.5) | |||||||
| Madjd et al. (2020) 36 | Moderate | 91% | Early pretest | Early posttest | Mean change | Late pretest | Late posttest | Mean change | |
| Body weight (kg) | 84.72 (6.37) | 77.98 (6.15) | −6.74 (1.92) | 84.40 (6.86) | 79.59 (7.08) | −4.81 (2.22) b | |||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 32.78 (2.05) | 30.18 (2.11) | −2.60 (0.71) | 32.73 (2.00) | 30.86 (2.18) | −1.87 (0.85) b | |||
| Waist circumference (cm) | 104 (7.82) | 96 (7.72) | −8 (3.25) | 103 (7.42) | 97 (7.20) | −6 (3.05) b | |||
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 4.66 (0.38) | 4.14 (0.44) | −0.52 (0.26) | 4.55 (0.42) | 4.22 (0.42) | −0.33 (0.16) b | |||
| LDL (mmol/L) | 3.10 (0.49) | 2.56 (0.51) | −0.54 (0.27) | 2.45 (0.49) | 2.31 (0.47) | −0.14 (0.25) | |||
| HDL (mmol/L) | 1.24 (0.18) | 1.31 (0.16) | 0.07 (0.04) | 1.21 (0.13) | 1.27 (0.12) | 0.07 (0.04) | |||
| Glucose (mmol/L) | 5.06 (0.36) | 4.61 (0.34) | −0.46 (0.18) | 5.05 (0.39) | 4.66 (0.38) | −0.40 (0.22) | |||
| Insulin (mU/L) | 14.33 (3.07) | 11.69 (2.63) | −2.64 (1.49) | 14.23 (2.40) | 12.80 (2.28) | −1.43 (1.38) b | |||
| HbA1c (%) | 5.38 (0.60) | 5.08 (0.56) | −0.30 (0.20) | 5.39 (0.49) | 5.06 (0.48) | −0.32 (0.19) | |||
| HOMA‐IR | 3.24 (0.80) | 2.41 (0.63) | −0.83 (0.37) | 3.22 (0.69) | 2.66 (0.57) | −0.55 (0.39) b | |||
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; HDL, high‐density lipoprotein; HOMA‐IR, homeostatic model of assessment of insulin resistance; LDL, low‐density lipoprotein.
a
p < 0.05 for within group differences.
b
p < 0.05 for between group differences.