TABLE 1.

Risk of bias assessment of included studies (n = 48)

Study	Confounding	Participants	Missing data	Measurement	Results
Au et al., 2012	1	1	1	1	1
Batscheider et al., 2014	1	1	2	1	1
Bettenhausen et al., 2015	1	1	1	1	1
Biener et al., 2020	1	1	1	3	1
Black et al., 2018	1	1	1	1	1
Booth et al., 2009	3	1	1	1	1
Breitfelder et al., 2011	1	1	1	1	1
Buescher et al., 2008	1	1	1	1	1
Clifford et al., 2015	1	1	1	1	1
Estabrooks et al., 2007	1	1	3	1	1
Finkelstein et al., 2008	1	1	1	1	1
Hampl et al., 2007	1	1	1	1	1
Hayes et al., 2016	1	1	1	1	1
Janicke et al., 2008	1	1	1	1	1
Janicke et al., 2010	1	1	1	1	1
Janssen et al., 2009	1	1	1	3	1
Jerrell et al., 2009	1	1	1	1	1
Johnson et al., 2006	1	1	2	3	1
Kirk et al., 2012	1	1	2	1	1
Kompaniyets et al., 2020	1	1	1	1	1
Kuhle et al., 2011	1	1	2	1	1
Kuhle et al., 2012	1	1	2	1	1
Lightwood et al., 2009	1	1	1	1	1
Monheit et al., 2009	1	1	2	3	1
Nafiu et al., 2008	1	1	1	1	1
Okubo et al., 2016	1	1	1	1	1
Okubo et al., 2017A	1	1	2	1	1
Okubo et al., 2017B	1	1	2	1	1
Okubo et al., 2018A	1	1	2	1	1
Okubo et al., 2018B	1	1	2	1	1
Okubo et al., 2018C	1	1	2	1	1
Ramsey et al., 2020	1	1	3	1	1
Sonntag et al., 2016	1	1	1	1	1
Thavamani et al., 2020	1	1	1	1	1
Trasande et al., 2009A	1	1	2	3	1
Trasande et al., 2009B	1	1	2	1	1
Trasande et al., 2010	1	1	2	1	1
Turer et al., 2013	1	1	1	3	1
Vellinga et al., 2008	3	1	1	1	1
Wang et al., 2002	3	1	1	1	1
Wang et al., 2010	1	1	2	3	1
Ward et al., 2021	1	1	1	3	1
Wenig et al., 2011	1	1	1	1	1
Wenig et al., 2012	1	1	1	1	1
Wijga et al., 2018	3	1	2	3	2
Woolford et al., 2007	1	1	3	1	1
Woodford et al., 2009	1	1	2	1	1
Wright et al., 2014	1	1	2	3	1

Notes: 1 = low, 2 = moderate, 3 = serious risk of bias.