Table 2.
Associations between spicy food and chili pepper consumption and cardiovascular and mortality diseases
| Outcome | Category | Study | No. of cases/total | MA metric | Estimates | 95% CI | No. of studies in MA | Cohort | Case control | Cross‐sectional | Effects model | I 2 | Egger test p‐value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cardiovascular outcomes | |||||||||||||
| DBP | Capsicum | Jang 2020 | NA | SMD | −0.16 | −0.49–0.17 | 3 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 0% | NA |
| SBP | Capsicum | Jang 2020 | NA | SMD | 0.22 | −0.44–0.88 | 4 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 81% | NA |
| SBP | Red pepper/Capsaicin | Shirani 2021 | NA | WMD | 0.43 | −1.15–2.01 | 8 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 72.50% | 0.267 |
| DBP | Red pepper/Capsaicin | Shirani 2021 | NA | WMD | −0.45 | −2.14–1.24 | 7 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 74.70% | 0.959 |
| Heart rate | Red pepper/Capsaicin | Shirani 2021 | NA | WMD | −0.6 | −1.97–0.78 | 5 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 46.80% | 0.001 |
| SBP | Fermented red pepper | Reza Amini 2020 | NA/363 | WMD | 1.83 | 1.03–2.63 | 8 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 54.30% | 0.228 |
| DBP | Fermented red pepper | Reza Amini 2020 | NA/363 | WMD | −0.78 | −1.45–0.01 | 7 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 66.50% | 0.409 |
| SBP | Capsinoids | Reza Amini 2020 | NA/363 | WMD | 0.55 | −1.45–2.55 | 8 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 54.30% | 0.228 |
| DBP | Capsinoids | Reza Amini 2020 | NA/363 | WMD | −1.9 | −3.72–0.09 | 7 | NA | NA | NA | Random | 66.50% | 0.409 |
| Cardiovascular mortality | Chili pepper | Yamani 2021 | NA/570 762 | RR | 0.74 | 0.64–0.88 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Random | 66% | NA |
| Cerebrovascular accident deaths | Chili pepper | Yamani 2022 | NA/570 763 | RR | 0.76 | 0.36–1.60 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Random | 93% | NA |
| Cardiovascular mortality | Spicy food | Ofori‐Asenso 2021 | NA/564 748 | HR/RR | 0.92 | 0.84–1.00 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Random | 0% | NA |
| Mortality | NA | ||||||||||||
| All‐cause mortality | Chili‐pepper | Yamani 2021 | NA/570 762 | RR | 0.75 | 0.64–0.88 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Random | 97% | NA |
| Cancer mortality | Chili‐pepper | Yamani 2021 | NA/570 762 | RR | 0.77 | 0.71; 0.84 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Random | 49% | NA |
| All‐cause mortality | Spicy food | Ofori‐Asenso 2021 | NA/564 748 | HR/RR | 0.88 | 0.86–0.90 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Random | 0% | NA |
DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HR, hazard ratio; NA, not available; RR, relative risk; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SMD, standard mean difference; WMD, weighted mean difference.