Table 2.
Baseline characteristics of patients included in the study by migration background (imputed data).
| Categories | Total N = 1886 |
Dutch origin N = 776 |
African Surinamese origin N = 177 |
South Asian Surinamese origin N = 72 |
Moroccan origin N = 144 |
Turkish origin N = 67 |
Other origins N = 310 |
Unknown origin N = 340 |
p-value for differences between ethnic groups |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demographics measures | |||||||||
| Age (years), median (IQR) | 62 (59–71) | 66 (56–75) | 59 (50–67) | 58.5 (50–68) | 60 (48–67) | 58 (51–68) | 57 (47–66) | 62 (51–71) | <0.001 |
| Sex, n (%) | |||||||||
| Male | 1067 (56.57) | 447 (57.60) | 69 (38.98) | 39 (54.17) | 84 (58.33) | 37 (55.22) | 187 (60.32) | 204 (60.00) | <0.001 |
| Female | 819 (43.23) | 329 (42.40) | 108 (61.02) | 33 (45.83) | 60 (41.67) | 30 (44.78) | 123 (39.38) | 136 (40.00) | |
| Behavioural measures | |||||||||
| Smoking, n (%) | |||||||||
| Current smokers | 181 (9.59) | 80 (10.31) | 20 (11.30) | 8 (11.11) | 7 (4.86) | 5 (7.46) | 26 (8.39) | 35 (10.29) | <0.001 |
| Former smokers | 621 (23.93) | 311 (40.08) | 58 (32.77) | 21 (29.17) | 31 (21.53) | 28 (41.79) | 73 (23.55) | 99 (29.12) | |
| Never smoked | 1084 (57.47) | 385 (49.61) | 99 (55.93) | 43 (59.72) | 106 (73.61) | 34 (50.75) | 211 (68.06) | 206 (60.59) | |
| Alcohol use disorder, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 87 (4.61) | 47 (6.06) | 9 (5.08) | 3 (4.17) | 5 (3.47) | 4 (5.97) | 7 (2.26) | 12 (3.53) | 0.089 |
| No | 1799 (95.39) | 729 (93.94) | 168 (94,91) | 69 (95.83) | 139 (96.52) | 63 (94.03) | 303 (97.74) | 328 (96.47) | |
| Vaccinated against COVID-19 | |||||||||
| Yes | 169 (8.96) | 86 (11.08) | 9 (5.08) | 6 (8.33) | 11 (7.64) | 4 (5.97) | 22 (7.10) | 31 (9.12) | 0.127 |
| No | 1717 (91.04) | 690 (88.92) | 168 (94.92) | 66 (91.67) | 133 (92.36) | 63 (94.03) | 288 (92.90) | 309 (90.88) | |
| Underlying medical conditions | |||||||||
| Obesity, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 530 (28.11) | 213 (27.45) | 72 (40.67) | 17 (23.61) | 44 (30.55) | 20 (29.85) | 85 (27.41) | 79 (23.23) | 0.003 |
| No | 1356 (71.89) | 563 (72.55) | 105 (59.32) | 55 (76.39) | 100 (69.44) | 47 (70.15) | 225 (72.58) | 261 (76.76) | |
| Hypertension, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 656 (34.78) | 245 (31.57) | 94 (53.11) | 37 (51.39) | 38 (26.39) | 30 (44.78) | 119 (38.39) | 93 (27.35) | <0.001 |
| No | 1230 (65.22) | 531 (68.43) | 83 (46.89) | 35 (48.61) | 106 (73.61) | 37 (55.22) | 191 (61.61) | 247 (72.65) | |
| Chronic respiratory condition, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 312 (16.54) | 146 (18.81) | 36 (20.34) | 12 (16.67) | 15 (10.42) | 12 (17.91) | 38 (12.26) | 53 (15.59) | 0.041 |
| No | 1574 (83.46) | 630 (81.19) | 141 (79.66) | 60 (83.33) | 129 (89.58) | 55 (82.09) | 272 (87.74) | 287 (84.41) | |
| Chronic cardiovascular condition, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 373 (19.78) | 183 (23.58) | 27 (15.25) | 26 (36.11) | 35 (24.31) | 12 (17.91) | 44 (14.19) | 46 (13.53) | <0.001 |
| No | 1513 (80.22) | 593 (76.42) | 150 (84.75) | 46 (63.89) | 109 (75.69) | 55 (82.09) | 266 (85.81) | 294 (86.47) | |
| Diabetes mellitus, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 442 (23.44) | 132 (17.01) | 56 (31.64) | 31 (43.06) | 43 (29.86) | 20 (29.85) | 82 (26.45) | 78 (22.94) | <0.001 |
| No | 1444 (76.56) | 644 (82.99) | 121 (68.36) | 41 (56.94) | 101 (70.14) | 47 (70.15) | 228 (73.55) | 262 (77.06) | |
| Chronic kidney disease, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 186 (9.86) | 61 (7.86) | 23 (12.99) | 22 (30.56) | 12 (8.33) | 10 (14.93) | 37 (11.94) | 21 (6.18) | <0.001 |
| No | 1700 (90.14) | 715 (92.14) | 154 (87.01) | 50 (69.44) | 132 (91.67) | 57 (85.07) | 273 (88.06) | 319 (93.82) | |
| Receiving immunosuppressive medication, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 159 (8.43) | 77 (9.92) | 17 (9.60) | 7 (9.72) | 9 (6.25) | 6 (8.96) | 26 (8.39) | 17 (5.00) | 0.185 |
| No | 1727 (91.57) | 699 (90.08) | 160 (90.40) | 65 (90.28) | 135 (93.75) | 61 (91.04) | 284 (91.61) | 323 (95.00) | |
| Chronic liver disease, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 66 (3.50) | 22 (2.84) | 6 (3.39) | 9 (12.50) | 2 (1.39) | 2 (2.99) | 14 (4.52) | 11 (3.24) | 0.002 |
| No | 1820 (96.50) | 754 (97.16) | 171 (96.61) | 63 (87.50) | 142 (98.61) | 65 (97.01) | 296 (95.48) | 329 (96.76) | |
| Malignancy, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 100 (5.30) | 58 (7.47) | 10 (5.65) | 2 (2.78) | 4 (2.78) | 2 (2.99) | 8 (2.58) | 16 (4.71) | 0.016 |
| No | 1786 (94.70) | 718 (92.53) | 167 (94.35) | 70 (97.22) | 140 (97.22) | 65 (97.01) | 302 (97.42) | 324 (95.29) | |
| Chronic haematological condition, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 82 (4.35) | 34 (4.38) | 18 (10.17) | 1 (1.39) | 3 (2.08) | 3 (4.48) | 12 (3.87) | 11 (3.24) | 0.004 |
| No | 1804 (95.65) | 742 (95.62) | 159 (89.83) | 71 (98.61) | 141 (97.92) | 64 (95.52) | 298 (96.13) | 329 (96.76) | |
| Chronic neurological condition, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 190 (10.07) | 88 (11.34) | 18 (10.17) | 9 (12.50) | 10 (6.94) | 4 (5.97) | 32 (10.32) | 29 (8.53) | 0.474 |
| No | 1696 (89.93) | 688 (88.66) | 159 (89.83) | 63 (87.50) | 134 (93.06) | 63 (94.03) | 278 (89.68) | 311 (91.47) | |
| Number of chronic conditions, n (%) | |||||||||
| None | 560 (29.69) | 219 (28.22) | 27 (15.25) | 14 (19.44) | 53 (36.81) | 12 (17.91) | 106 (34.19) | 129 (37.94) | <0.001 |
| 1 chronic condition | 467 (24.76) | 197 (25.39) | 46 (25.98) | 15 (20.83) | 36 (25.00) | 23 (34.33) | 72 (23.22) | 78 (22.94) | |
| 2 chronic conditions | 367 (19.45) | 166 (21.39) | 37 (20.90) | 11 (15.27) | 21 (14.58) | 11 (16.41) | 53 (17.09) | 68 (20.00) | |
| 3 chronic conditions | 246 (13.04) | 105 (13.53) | 28 (15.81) | 13 (18.05) | 16 (11.11) | 13 (19.40) | 34 (10.96) | 37 (10.88) | |
| 4+ chronic conditions | 246 (13.04) | 89 (11.46) | 39 (22.03) | 19 (26.39) | 18 (12.50) | 8 (11.94) | 45 (14.51) | 28 (8.23) | |
| Hospital admission parameters | |||||||||
| Number of days admitted in hospital, median (IQR) | 6.00 (3.00–11.00) | 7.00 (4.00–14.00) | 4.00 (3.00–9.00) | 5.00 (3.00–10.00) | 5.00 (3.00–9.25) | 7.00 (3.00–10.00) | 6.00 (3.50–11.00) | 5.00 (3.00–10.00) | <0.001 |
| Rehospitalization, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 190 (10.07) | 27 (3.48) | 5 (2.82) | 3 (4.17) | 7 (4.86) | 4 (5.97) | 16 (5.16) | 18 (5.29) | 0.651 |
| No | 1696 (89.93) | 749 (96.52) | 172 (97.18) | 69 (95.83) | 137 (95.14) | 63 (94.03) | 294 (94.84) | 322 (94.71) | |
| Admitted to the ICU, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 385 (20.41) | 180 (23.20) | 24 (13.56) | 11 (15.28) | 26 (18.06) | 17 (25.37) | 67 (21.61) | 60 (17.65) | 0.038 |
| No | 1501 (79.59) | 596 (76.80) | 153 (86.44) | 61 (84.72) | 118 (81.94) | 50 (74.63) | 243 (78.39) | 280 (82.35) | |
| Received oxygen, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 1608 (85.26) | 659 (84.92) | 150 (84.75) | 56 (77.78) | 130 (90.28) | 60 (89.55) | 263 (84.84) | 290 (85.29) | 0.022 |
| No | 278 (22.32) | 117 (15.08) | 27 (15.25) | 16 (22.22) | 14 (9.72) | 7 (10.45) | 47 (15.16) | 50 (14.71) | |
| Received antibiotics, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 861(45.65) | 380 (48.97) | 72 (40.68) | 28 (38.89) | 55 (38.19) | 35 (52.24) | 170 (54.84) | 121 (35.59) | <0.001 |
| No | 1025 (54.75) | 396 (51.03) | 105 (59.32) | 44 (61.11) | 89 (61.81) | 32 (47.76) | 140 (45.16) | 219 (64.41) | |
| Received corticosteroids, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 1091 (57.85) | 416 (53.61) | 108 (61.02) | 44 (61.11) | 77 (53.47) | 41 (61.19) | 182 (58.71) | 223 (65.59) | 0.011 |
| No | 795 (42.15) | 360 (46.39) | 69 (38.98) | 28 (38.89) | 67 (46.53) | 26 (38.81) | 128 (41.29) | 117 (34.41) | |
| Received remdesivir, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 181 (9.60) | 50 (6.44) | 30 (16.95) | 7 (9.72) | 18 (12.50) | 17 (25.37) | 34 (10.97) | 25 (7.35) | <0.001 |
| No | 1705 (90.40) | 726 (93.56) | 147 (83.05) | 65 (90.28) | 126 (87.50) | 50 (74.63) | 276 (89.03) | 315 (92.65) | |
| Presence of long COVID symptoms | |||||||||
| Fatigue, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 340 (18.03) | 127 (16.37) | 39 (22.03) | 15 (20.83) | 29 (20.14) | 12 (17.91) | 52 (16.77) | 66 (19.41) | 0.549 |
| No | 1546 (81.97) | 649 (83.63) | 138 (77.97) | 57 (79.17) | 115 (79.86) | 55 (82.09) | 258 (83.23) | 274 (80.59) | |
| Dyspnoea, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 308 (16.33) | 112 (14.43) | 32 (18.08) | 14 (19.44) | 22 (15.28) | 16 (23.88) | 45 (14.52) | 67 (19.71) | 0.150 |
| No | 1578 (83.67) | 664 (85.57) | 145 (81.92) | 58 (80.56) | 122 (84.72) | 51 (76.12) | 265 (85.48) | 273 (80.29) | |
| Cough, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 73 (3.87) | 26 (3.35) | 8 (4.52) | 5 (6.94) | 7 (4.86) | 6 (8.96) | 11 (3.55) | 10 (2.94) | 0.203 |
| No | 1813 (96.13) | 750 (96.65) | 169 (95.48) | 67 (93.06) | 137 (95.14) | 61 (91.04) | 299 (96.45) | 330 (97.06) | |
| Chest pain, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 43 (2.28) | 17 (2.19) | 6 (3.39) | 1 (1.39) | 7 (4.86) | 1 (1.49) | 6 (1.94) | 5 (1.47) | 0.328 |
| No | 1843 (97.72) | 759 (97.81) | 171 (96.61) | 71 (98.61) | 137 (95.14) | 66 (98.51) | 304 (98.06) | 335 (98.53) | |
| Heart palpitations, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 14 (0.74) | 3 (0.39) | 1 (0.56) | 0 (0.00) | 6 (4.17) | 0 (0.00) | 3 (0.97) | 1 (0.29) | <0.001 |
| No | 1872 (99.26) | 773 (99.61) | 176 (99.44) | 72 (100.00) | 138 (95.83) | 67 (100.00) | 307 (99.03) | 339 (99.71) | |
| Dizziness, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 15 (0.80) | 2 (0.26) | 2 (1.13) | 0 (0.00) | 1 (0.69) | 3 (4.48) | 5 (1.61) | 2 (0.59) | 0.006 |
| No | 1871 (99.20) | 774 (99.74) | 175 (98.87) | 72 (100.00) | 143 (99.31) | 64 (95.52) | 305 (98.39) | 338 (99.41) | |
| Joint/muscle pain, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 43 (2.28) | 7 (0.90) | 6 (3.39) | 4 (5.56) | 4 (2.78) | 6 (8.96) | 14 (4.52) | 2 (0.59) | <0.001 |
| No | 1843 (97.72) | 769 (99.10) | 171 (96.61) | 68 (94.44) | 140 (97.22) | 61 (91.04) | 296 (95.48) | 338 (99.41) | |
| Loss of taste/smell, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 32 (1.70) | 14 (1.80) | 3 (1.69) | 0 (0.00) | 3 (2.08) | 1 (1.49) | 7 (2.26) | 4 (1.18) | 0.859 |
| No | 1854 (98.30) | 762 (98.20) | 174 (98.31) | 72 (100.00) | 141 (97.92) | 66 (98.51) | 303 (97.74) | 336 (98.82) | |
| Insomnia, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 77 (4.08) | 24 (3.09) | 10 (5.65) | 4 (5.56) | 10 (6.94) | 4 (5.97) | 19 (6.13) | 6 (1.76) | 0.020 |
| No | 1809 (95.92) | 752 (96.91) | 167 (94.35) | 68 (94.44) | 134 (93.06) | 63 (94.03) | 291 (93.87) | 334 (98.24) | |
| Headache, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 14 (0.74) | 5 (0.64) | 1 (0.56) | 2 (2.78) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 6 (1.94) | 0 (0.00) | 0.026 |
| No | 1872 (99.26) | 771 (99.36) | 176 (99.44) | 70 (97.22) | 144 (100.00) | 67 (100.00) | 304 (98.06) | 340 (100.00) | |
| Any long COVID symptom, n (%) | |||||||||
| Yes | 483 (25.61) | 174 (22.42) | 59 (33.33) | 24 (33.33) | 44 (30.56) | 24 (35.82) | 79 (25.48) | 79 (23.24) | 0.005 |
| No | 1403 (74.39) | 602 (77.58) | 118 (66.67) | 48 (66.67) | 100 (69.44) | 43 (64.18) | 231 (74.52) | 261 (76.76) | |
p-value for differences between ethnic groups considered statistically significant at values less than 0.05.
Alcohol use disorder based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–5) criteria.
Vaccinated against COVID-19 refers to receipt of any time of COVID-19 before admission irrespective of number of doses at admission.
Obesity: body mass index ≥30 kg/m2, data collected as a yes or no in the electronic medical records.
Chronic respiratory condition: Asthma, Alpha 1 trypsin deficiency, Asbestosis, Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP), LAM, LICS, Broncho-pulmonary dysplasia or Primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bronchiectasis, Cystic fibrosis, COPD (chronic bronchitis, emphysema), Lung fibrosis, Sarcoidosis, Obstructive sleep apnoea, Pulmonary hypertension.
Chronic cardiovascular condition: Myocardial infarction, Cardiac arrhythmias: AVNRT, Atrial fibrillation, (supra)ventricular tachycardia, Ventricular tachycardia, Brugada syndrome, Sick sinus syndrome, Wolf Parkinson white syndrome, Heart failure, Cardiomyopathy, valvular heart diseases: aortic stenosis, aortic regurgitation, mitral regurgitation, Tricuspid regurgitation, all other forms of valvular diseases.
Chronic kidney disease: Acute tubular necrosis or tubulo interstitial nephritis (TIN), Atypical haemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS), Amyloidosis, Anti-GBM nephritis, Bartter syndrome, Kidney damage due to medication, Chronic bladder infections/kidney infections, Cryoglobulinemia, Cysts, Cystinosis, Dense deposit disease (DDD), Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), Gitelman syndrome, HNF1 beta associated kidney disease, Horseshoe kidneys, IgA nephropathy, Medullary Sponge Kidneys, Membranous nephropathy, Minimal change disease, mononier Nail-patella syndrome (NPS), Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, Nephronophthisis, Nephrosclerosis, Nephrotic syndrome, Renal angiomyolipoma's, Kidney filter, Primary hyperoxaluria, Reflux nephropathy, Shrivel kidneys scleroderma, SLE nephritis, Alport's syndrome, Systemic Vasculitis.
Receiving Immunosuppressive medication: Azathioprine, Lenalidomide, Methotrexate, Pirfenidone, Epomalidomide, Thalidomide, Abatacept, Apremilast, Baricitinib, Belatacept, Belimumab, Eculizumab, Vedolizumab, Everolimus, Leflunomide, Mycophenolic acid, Sirolimus, Thymocyte globulin, Tofacitinib, Upadacinitib.
Diabetes mellitus includes its complications such as diabetic foot, diabetic polyneuropathy, diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy.
Chronic haematological condition: Chronic lymphoblastic leukaemia/Acute leukaemia, Thalassemia, Sickle Cell Disease, Haemolytic Disorders, Clotting disorders (Haemophilia, von Willebrand disease, Thrombophilia).
Chronic neurological condition: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Muscular dystrophies (Duchenne, Becker muscular dystrophy), Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Guillain barre with still phenomena, Cerebral vascular accidents, (bloody/non-blooded)/transient ischemic attack, Pompeii disease, Dementia.
Chronic liver disease: Cirrhosis, Portal hypertension, Chronic hepatitis.
Received corticosteroids: Hydrocortisone, Prednisone, Dexamethasone, Methylprednisolone.
Received antibiotic medications applies to all forms of antibiotics.