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. 2023 Apr 7;8:149. doi: 10.1038/s41392-023-01408-5

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Antigen presentation mechanisms of intramuscular-delivered viral vector vaccine. (1) Construction and vaccination of a recombinant viral vector vaccine. (2) Viral vector vaccine is taken up by muscle cells through endocytosis. (3) Endosome escape from viral vector vaccine. (4) Partially disassembled virus capsid traffic to the nucleus, initiating the transcription process. (5) Protein translation and post-translational modification in endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus. (6) Antigen proteins are presented to antigen presenting cells. The antigen can be loaded onto MHC class I for direct presentation to CD8⁺ T cells, and loaded onto MHC class II for direct presentation to CD4⁺ T cells. (7) T cells lyse infected cells under the mediation of cytokines. (8) Stimulated B cells differentiate into memory B cells and antibody-releasing plasma cells. (9) Antigen proteins are recognized by antibodies, including those capable of Fc-mediated effector function, including antibody-mediated cellular cytotoxicity and antibody-dependent cell-mediated phagocytosis. (10) Neutralizing antibodies neutralize pathogens and block their entry. (Created in BioRender)