Table 2. Risk factors for psychiatric symptoms among Long COVID participants from multivariate analysis.
| Authors | Identified risk factors |
|---|---|
| Depression | |
| Huarcaya-Victoria et al., 2021 [16] | Female (PRa 2.11 [1.16–3.84]) History of psychiatry treatment (PRa 2.29 [1.10–4.47]) Loss of family due to COVID-19 (PRa 2.00 [1.12–3.58]) Perception of the COVID-19 severity (PRa 6.90 [2.09–22.78]) At least 1 LongCOVID-19 symptom (PRa 7.80 [2.16–28.15]) Disease severity scale 5–6 (OR 1.77 [1.05–2.97]) |
| C. Huang et al., 2020 [26] | Female (OR 1.80 [1.39–2.34]) Disease severity scale 5–6 (OR 1.77 [1.05–2.97]) |
| Fernández-de-Las-Peñas, Pellicer-Valero, et al., 2021 [28] | Female (OR 2.14 [1.25–3.65]) Days at hospital (OR 1.05 [1.035–1.077]) Onset of dyspnea at hospital admission (OR 4.86 [3.01–7.85]) Onset of myalgia at hospital admission (OR 1.74 [1.08–2.78]) The number of COVID-19 symptoms at hospital admission (OR 2.96, [1.80–4.85]) |
| Menges et al., 2021 [22] | Lower educational status (OR 0.31 [0.11–0.85]) Being unemployed (OR 2.53 [1.12–5.63]) |
| Anxiety | |
| Huarcaya-Victoria et al., 2021 [16] | Female (PRa 2.70 [1.31–5.57], p = 0.007) Live with father and/or other family members (PRa 6.64 [1.06–41.52], p = 0.043) History of psychiatric diagnosis (PRa 2.84 [1.25–6.46], p = 0.013) History of psychiatric treatment (PRa 3.50 [1.56–7.87], p = 0.002) At least 1 persistent COVID-19 symptoms (PRa 11.50 [3.07–43.15], p<0.001) |
| C. Huang et al., 2020 [26] | Female (OR 1.80 [1.39–2.34]) Disease severity (OR 1.77 [1.05–2.97]) |
| Fernández-de-Las-Peñas, Pellicer-Valero, et al., 2021 [28] | Female (OR 3.11 [1.745.54]) The number of COVID-19 symptoms at hospital admission (OR 3.21 [1.87–5.51]) Days at hospital (OR 1.05 [1.025–1.071]) Onset of dyspnea at hospital admission (OR 4.22 [2.50–7.10]) Onset of myalgia at hospital admission (OR 2.85 [1.70–4.79]) |
| PTSD | |
| Bellan et al., 2021 [27] | Male (OR 0.34 [0.14–0.84]) |
| Huarcaya-Victoria et al., 2021 [16] | Educational degree of secondary school (PRa 0.36 [0.15–0.86]) History of psychiatric diagnosis (PRa 3.19 [1.49–6.80]) History of psychiatric treatment (PRa 4.02 [1.93–8.39]) Self-perception of the COVID-19 severity (PRa 12.94 [1.86–90.07]) At least 1 persistent COVID-19 symptoms (PRa 17.84 [2.07–153.58) |
| De Lorenzo et al., 2021 [29] | Comorbidities psychiatric disorder (OR 10.69 [2.09–78.75]) Insomnia in month 1 (OR 19.41 [3.44–180.26]) Anxiety in month 1 (OR 5.45 [1.12–31.00]) PTSD in month 1 (OR 4.81 [1.03–24.04]) |
| Somatic symptoms | |
| Huarcaya-Victoria et al., 2021 [16] | Female (PRa 1.90 [1.14–3.18]) History of psychiatric diagnosis (PRa 2.57 [1.47–4.50]) History of psychiatric treatment (PRa 2.78 [1.57–4.92]) Loss of family due to COVID-19 (PRa 1.69 [1.01–2.82]) At least 1 persistent COVID-19 symptoms (PRa 6.17 [2.48–15.35]) |
| Shang et al., 2021 [30] | Female (HR 1.569 [1.126–2.188]) |
| Fernández-de-Las-Peñas, Torres-Macho, et al., 2021 [17] | Obesity (OR 2.10 [1.13–3.83]) |
| Cognitive deficits | |
| Frontera et al., 2021 [31] | Age (OR 1.03 [1.01–1.05]) Race (white) (OR 0.41 [0.22–0.78]) Education > 12 years (OR 0.40 [0.18–0.89]) History of dementia (OR 4.48 [1.16–12.37]) |
| Goraud et al., 2021 [35] | Age (OR 1.05 [1.01–1.09]) HADS score (OR 1.96 [1.08–3.57]) ICU admission (OR 0.22 [0.05–0.90]) |
Note: CI = confident interval; COVID-19 = corona virus disease 2019; HADS = Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; HR = hazard ratio; OR = odds ratio; PR = prevalence ratio.