Table 1.
Principles put forward by different sources to support successful ecosystem restoration and enhance resilience.
| Restoration Principles | Resilience Principles |
|---|---|
| Suding et al. 201573 | Walker & Salt 200677 |
| Increase ecological integrity □ | Promote and sustain diversity ☆ |
| Establish long-term sustainable systems □ ○ | Embrace and work with ecological variability □ ☆ |
| Learn from the past and plan for the future □ | Maintain and create modularity ○ |
| Benefit and engage society □ ☆ | Acknowledge slow variables □ |
| Gann et al. 201913 | Tighten the strength of feedbacks □ ○ |
| Engage stakeholders □ ☆ | Strengthen social capital □ ☆ |
| Draw on many types of knowledge ☆ | Emphasize innovation ☆ |
| Relate to native reference ecosystems while considering environmental change □ | Create redundancy in governance ☆ |
| Support ecosystem recovery processes □ ○ | Include unpriced ecosystem services □ ☆ |
| Assess against clear goals using measurable indicators ○ | Biggs et al. 201278 |
| Seek the highest level of recovery possible □ | Maintain diversity and redundancy ☆ |
| Gain cumulative value when applied at large scales □ ○ | Manage connectivity ○ |
| Design activities as part of a restorative continuum □ ☆ | Manage slow variables and feedback □ |
| Gichuki et al. 201974 | Foster an understanding of social-ecological systems as complex adaptive systems ○ |
| Focus on landscapes □ | Encourage learning and experimentation ☆ |
| Maintain and enhance natural ecosystems □ | Broaden participation ☆ |
| Engage stakeholders, support participatory governance ☆ | Promote polycentric governance systems ☆ |
| Tailor to local conditions □ | Carpenter et al. 201279 |
| Restore multiple functions for multiple benefits ☆ | Promote diversity ☆ |
| Manage adaptively for long-term resilience ○ | Create modularity ○ |
| FAO, IUCN & CEM 202175 | Manage openness ○ |
| Contribute to the SDGs and the Rio Conventions ☆ | Maintain reserves ○ ☆ |
| Promote inclusive and participatory governance ○ ☆ | Manage feedbacks □ |
| Include a continuum of restorative activities ☆ | Enable polycentric governance by nesting systems ☆ |
| Benefit nature and people ○ | Conduct monitoring ○ |
| Address causes of degradation □ | Promote leadership and trust ☆ |
| Integrate different types of knowledge ☆ | |
| Establish well-defined and measurable goals ○ | |
| Tailor to local contexts while considering the larger landscape □ | |
| Include management and monitoring ○ | |
| Ensure an enabling policy environment ○ |
We iteratively assigned these principles to three core themes: work with the existing system = □; create self-sustaining systems = ○; foster diversity and participation = ☆.