Table 3. Multivariable Linear Regression Models of the Number of Barriers Experienced Overall and Among Population Subgroups, Weighted Analysis.
| Characteristic | Weighted mean No. of barriers experienced (95% CI) | Difference in weighted means between years (95% CI) | P valuea | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2017 | 2021 | |||
| Overall | 1.09 (1.02 to 1.15) | 1.29 (1.22 to 1.37) | 0.20 (0.19 to 0.22) | <.001 |
| Age, y | ||||
| 18-24 | 1.36 (1.12 to 1.59) | 1.50 (1.20 to 1.79) | 0.14 (0.08 to 0.20) | .08 |
| 25-29 | 1.32 (1.15 to 1.49) | 1.74 (1.53 to 1.96) | 0.42 (0.37 to 0.47) | <.001 |
| 30-39 | 1.13 (1.03 to 1.23) | 1.22 (1.11 to 1.33) | 0.09 (0.08 to 1.00) | .005 |
| 40-49 | 0.83 (0.74 to 0.92) | 1.08 (0.96 to 1.20) | 0.25 (0.22 to 0.28) | .001 |
| Race or ethnicity | ||||
| Asian or Pacific Islander | 0.74 (0.51 to 0.97) | 0.92 (0.62 to 1.23) | 0.18 (0.11 to 0.26) | .29 |
| Black | 1.43 (1.21 to 1.65) | 1.64 (1.38 to 1.91) | 0.21 (0.17 to 0.26) | .04 |
| Hispanic | 1.55 (1.37 to 1.73) | 1.96 (1.75 to 2.18) | 0.41 (0.38 to 0.45) | <.001 |
| White | 0.88 (0.81 to 0.94) | 1.03 (0.95 to 1.11) | 0.15 (0.03 to 0.17) | <.001 |
| Multiracial or otherb | 1.34 (0.99 to 1.68) | 1.29 (0.98 to 1.60) | −0.05 (−0.01 to −0.08) | .29 |
| Highest level of education | ||||
| No high school diploma or GED | 2.07 (1.70 to 2.44) | 2.69 (2.23 to 3.16) | 0.62 (0.53 to 0.72) | .02 |
| High school graduate (high school diploma) | 1.29 (1.13 to 1.45) | 1.65 (1.43 to 1.86) | 0.35 (0.30 to 0.41) | .002 |
| Some college or associate’s degree | 1.16 (1.06 to 1.25) | 1.24 (1.11 to 1.37) | 0.08 (0.05 to 0.12) | .08 |
| Bachelor’s degree | 0.72 (0.65 to 0.79) | 1.01 (0.89 to 1.12) | 0.29 (0.24 to 0.33) | <.001 |
| Master’s degree or above | 0.62 (0.53 to 0.72) | 0.88 (0.78 to 0.99) | 0.26 (0.25 to 0.29) | <.001 |
| Percentage of the FPL | ||||
| <100 | 2.12 (1.89 to 2.36) | 2.77 (2.44 to 3.09) | 0.65 (0.55 to 0.73) | .004 |
| 100-199 | 1.44 (1.29 to 1.59) | 1.75 (1.53 to 1.98) | 0.31 (0.24 to 0.39) | .02 |
| ≥200 | 0.80 (0.74 to 0.87) | 1.04 (0.96 to 1.12) | 0.24 (0.22 to 0.25) | <.001 |
| Metropolitan statistical area | ||||
| Nonmetropolitan | 1.12 (0.95 to 1.28) | 1.30 (1.07 to 1.51) | 0.18 (0.12 to 0.23) | .10 |
| Metropolitan | 1.08 (1.01 to 1.15) | 1.29 (1.21 to 1.38) | 0.21 (0.20 to 0.23) | <.001 |
| Geographic region | ||||
| New Englandc | 0.74 (0.54 to 0.94) | 0.99 (0.72 to 1.26) | 0.25 (0.18 to 0.32) | .03 |
| Middle Atlanticd | 0.83 (0.68 to 0.98) | 1.31 (1.09 to 1.53) | 0.48 (0.41 to 0.55) | <.001 |
| East North Centrale | 1.06 (0.91 to 1.22) | 1.11 (0.94 to 1.29) | 0.05 (0.03 to 0.07) | .32 |
| West North Centralf | 0.75 (0.59 to 0.92) | 1.20 (0.88 to 1.51) | 0.45 (0.29 to 0.59) | .02 |
| South Atlanticg | 1.19 (1.03 to 1.35) | 1.36 (1.18 to 1.54) | 0.17 (0.15 to 0.19) | .02 |
| East South Centralh | 1.25 (0.92 to 1.58) | 1.58 (1.17 to 1.99) | 0.33 (0.25 to 0.41) | .04 |
| West South Centrali | 1.35 (1.15 to 1.54) | 1.39 (1.18 to 1.61) | 0.04 (0.03 to 0.07) | .55 |
| Mountainj | 1.18 (0.95 to 1.42) | 1.30 (1.03 to 1.56) | 0.12 (0.08 to 0.14) | .09 |
| Pacifick | 1.09 (0.95 to 1.24) | 1.30 (1.12 to 1.49) | 0.21 (0.17 to 0.25) | .005 |
| State implementation of ACA Medicaid expansion pathway and family planning–only programs | ||||
| Expansion with family planning (19 statesl) | 0.96 (0.87 to 1.04) | 1.25 (1.14 to 1.36) | 0.29 (0.27 to 0.32) | <.001 |
| Expansion with no family planning (18 statesm and District of Columbia) | 1.00 (0.88 to 1.12) | 1.20 (1.05 to 1.34) | 0.19 (0.18 to 0.22) | .002 |
| No expansion with family planning only (9 statesn) | 1.37 (1.23 to 1.52) | 1.39 (1.23 to 1.54) | 0.02 (0 to 0.02) | .45 |
| No expansion and no family planning (4 stateso) | 1.02 (0.70 to 1.34) | 1.66 (1.21 to 2.11) | 0.64 (0.51 to 0.77) | .01 |
| Language survey taken in | ||||
| English | 1.02 (0.95 to 1.08) | 1.21 (1.13 to 1.28) | 0.19 (0.18 to 0.20) | <.001 |
| Spanish | 1.77 (1.49 to 2.05) | 2.64 (2.22 to 3.06) | 0.87 (0.73 to 1.01) | <.001 |
Abbreviations: ACA, Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act; FPL, federal poverty level; GED, General Educational Development test.
All regression models controlled for the covariates listed in the characteristics column.
Other race and ethnicity included American Indian or Alaska Native, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese or Korean, Southeast Asian, 2 or more races or ethnicities listed as other.
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont.
New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania.
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin.
Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota.
Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia.
Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee.
Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas.
Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming.
Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, Washington.
California, Connecticut, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, Washington.
Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Utah, West Virginia.
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, Wisconsin, Wyoming.
Kansas, Missouri, South Dakota, Tennessee.