Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Wiley Open Access Collection logoLink to Wiley Open Access Collection
. 2022 Sep 13;57(6):1484–1490. doi: 10.1111/nuf.12798

Self‐esteem in the context of intimate partner violence: A concept analysis

Ayşe Güler 1,✉, Karen Bankston 1, Carolyn R Smith 1
PMCID: PMC10087188  PMID: 36098265

Abstract

AIM

To explore the meaning of self‐esteem in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV).

Background

IPV is a preventable public health issue. The dynamic of IPV diminishes women's self‐esteem. Defining self‐esteem will guide the development of IPV interventions in healthcare settings.

Design

Walker and Avant's eight‐step approach was used.

Data Source

The search was conducted from Oxford Dictionary of English online, CINAHL, APA PsycInfo, PubMed, Women's Studies International, and Google Scholar.

Review Methods

No limits on the year of publication were applied.

Results

Defining attributes of self‐esteem are self‐concept, self‐affirmation, and self‐respect. Antecedents of self‐esteem are exposure to IPV and victim‐blaming attitudes by healthcare professionals. Consequences include depression, substance abuse, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Empirical referents include self‐worth, self‐competence, self‐blame, self‐evaluation, self‐confidence, and self‐determination.

Conclusions

Current literature is limited in its definition of self‐esteem in the context of IPV. Women experiencing IPV with low self‐esteem might not seek help for IPV from nurses. Nurses could develop culturally appropriate IPV screening tools that assess the changes in self‐esteem among women from different sociodemographic and cultural backgrounds. The defining attributes could contribute to developing comprehensive IPV screening tools in healthcare settings.

Keywords: concept analysis, intimate partner violence, self‐esteem, violence against women

1. INTRODUCTION

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global public health issue 1 which leads to physical and mental health issues that negatively impact the well‐being of individuals, families, and children. IPV is defined as assaultive and coercive behaviors including physical, sexual, and emotional or psychological violence by a perpetrator to control a former or current intimate partner. 2 , 3 Globally, nearly 1 in 3 women report being exposed to physical and/or sexual IPV or nonpartner sexual violence in their lifetime. 4

In the United States, approximately 1 in 4 women and 1 in 10 men report exposure to sexual and physical IPV, and/or stalking by an intimate partner, and experience IPV‐related health outcomes during their lifetime. 5 Health consequences of IPV exposure include traumatic brain injury, facial fractures, bone fractures, 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 sexually transmitted diseases, unintended pregnancies, miscarriages, fetal injury, 1 , 6 , 7 , 8 anxiety, depression, low self‐esteem, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance abuse. 7 , 8 , 11 , 12 , 13

Current literature describes multiple relationships between women's IPV exposure, IPV‐related health outcomes, and self‐esteem levels. For example, a husband's insults about his wife's physical appearance (i.e., emotional IPV) were found to be a strong predictor of decreases in a woman's self‐esteem in marital relationships. 14 Self‐esteem also plays a moderating role in the correlation between the adversity of IPV exposure and mental health issues in women exposed to IPV. 15 Prolonged exposure to physical and psychological IPV damages women's self‐esteem permanently. 16 , 17

Women's evaluations of themselves and their intimate partners are relevant to the cycle of IPV. Depending on the cycle of IPV, women indicate different levels of self‐esteem. 16 Low self‐esteem has been identified as a central outcome of IPV victimization that is correlated to adverse mental health disorders among women exposed to IPV. 18 Damaging women's self‐esteem is a mechanism used by perpetrators in the IPV victimization process. 19 Conversely, low self‐esteem is a risk factor for both IPV victimization and perpetration. 20

Considering the important role self‐esteem plays in the dynamic of IPV victimization, clarity is needed regarding this concept within this specific context. Therefore, the purpose of this concept analysis is to understand the meaning of “self‐esteem” within the context of IPV and identify implications for nursing practice.

2. METHODS

This concept analysis was guided by Walker and Avant's eight‐step method 21 which includes: (1) selecting a concept, (2) determining the aims or purposes of the analysis, (3) identifying all uses of the concept, (4) defining attributes, (5) identifying a model case, (6) creating additional cases, (7) identifying antecedents and consequences, and (8) defining empirical referents. 21 Once the concept was selected and purpose of the concept analysis determined, a search was conducted to identify all uses of the concept. Key search terms applied to find relevant literature included: “concept analysis,” “self‐esteem,” “self‐esteem,” “concept analysis + self‐esteem,” and “spouse abuse or intimate partner violence or domestic violence or partner abuse.” Subject heading and keyword analysis were used.

A comprehensive search of several online dictionaries was conducted and included Oxford Dictionary of English online, Merriam‐Webster online dictionary, Wikipedia online, and Dictionary.com. The search also included the following electronic databases: CINAHL Plus with Full Text, Academic Search Complete, APA PsycInfo, Gender Studies Database, MEDLINE, MEDLINE with Full Text, SocINDEX with Full Text, Women's Studies International, PubMed, Scopus, EMBASE, and Google Scholar.

No limits on the year of publication were applied to maximize the scope and breath of definitions and uses of “self‐esteem.” To ensure articles fit the intended concept (“self‐esteem) and context (IPV) and were of acceptable quality, the following inclusion criteria were applied: (1) reported on both women's experiences of IPV and self‐esteem; (2) published in peer‐reviewed journal; (3) written in English; and (4) available as full text. Figure 1 exhibits a PRISMA 2020 flow diagram which shows the study selection process. 22 A total of 116 articles published between 1986 and 2022 informed this concept analysis.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

PRISMA 2020 Flow diagram 22 [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

3. DEFINITIONS AND USES

According to Merriam‐Webster online dictionary, there are two definitions of and origins for self‐esteem. In 1576, self‐esteem was defined as “an exaggerated opinion of one's own qualities or abilities” and then in 1619, self‐esteem was also defined as “a confidence and satisfaction in oneself.” 23 Wikipedia online defines self‐esteem as “reflects an individual's overall subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth, as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame.” 24 Dictionary.com places the origins of self‐esteem in 1650–60s and provides two definitions: “a realistic respect for or favorable impression of oneself” and “an inordinately or exaggeratedly favorable impression of oneself.” 25

Self‐esteem has been used across disciplines such as education, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, medical science, child development, family violence, and IPV. The physiological definition of self‐esteem is “one's attitude towards oneself or one's opinion or evaluation of oneself, which may be positive (favorable or high), neutral, or negative (unfavorable or low).” 26 A philosophical definition of self‐esteem is an evaluation of an individual's values, beauty, and ability. 27 Cicei 28 noted that “self‐esteem is considered to be a global personal judgment of worthiness of self” (p 4346). Global self‐esteem is defined as “generalized feelings of self‐worth which are not specific to a particular situation, but which apply to many activities or areas of life.” 29 Rosenburg et al. 30 reported “specific self‐esteem is most relevant to behavior, whereas global self‐esteem is the most relevant to psychological well‐being” (p 144). Recently, Chung 31 noted the development of self‐esteem in the context of a relationship and described it as the worth or dignity that an individual attributes to himself or herself through mutual relationships. High self‐esteem is related to healthy psychological functioning and low self‐esteem is a symptom of or risk factor for psychopathology. 32 Last, Matheson et al. 33 noted that “self‐esteem forms the basis of one's own image; whether a woman sees her self‐value or self‐worth either as positive or negative” (p 562).

The concept of self‐esteem has been extensively used in published IPV literature; however, to date, no clear or consistent definition of self‐esteem has been identified. Researchers have employed several scales to quantitatively measure self‐esteem levels in women exposed IPV by using self‐related constructs 17 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 (e.g., the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale, 35 the Self‐Esteem Stability Scale, 41 and the Coopersmith Self‐Esteem Inventory) 42 Although self‐esteem is one of the core concepts in IPV research, as evidenced by the use of various scales, researchers have not provided a clear definition of self‐esteem. Therefore, the authors cautiously reviewed the self‐related constructs, existing theoretical literature, and dictionaries to define attributes of and provide a clear definition for self‐esteem.

4. DEFINING ATTRIBUTES

Attributes are defined as building blocks or characteristics of the concept that are presented repeatedly throughout extant literature, associated with the concept, and help distinguish the concept from related concepts. 21 After examination of dictionary definitions and current research evidence, the authors determined that self‐concept, self‐affirmation, and self‐respect are defining attributes most often associated with self‐esteem in the context of IPV. 39 , 43 , 44 , 45

Self‐concept is “one's description and evaluation of oneself, including psychological and physical characteristics, qualities, skills, roles and so forth.” 46 Self‐concept has been used to measure levels of self‐esteem and assess the efficacy of the therapeutic interventions to change levels of self‐esteem in women exposed to IPV. 43 , 47 , 48 Negative self‐concept caused by humiliations made by the abuser is associated with lowered self‐esteem in women exposed to IPV. 49 Researchers have applied self‐concept scales to assess women's self‐esteem, to which reduced self‐care is associated with increased health issues among women with low self‐esteem caused by IPV exposure. 48

Self‐affirmation is defined as “the recognition and assertion of the existence and value of one's individual self.” 50 Self‐affirmation is significantly correlated to self‐esteem in women exposed to IPV where the increased levels of self‐esteem is contributed to women's positive self‐affirmation. 39 , 51 Steele's Affirmation theory is widely used in IPV literature to assess the level of self‐esteem; women's self‐esteem is moderated by level of self‐affirmation among women exposed to IPV. 39 The Affirmation theory also proposes that prolonged exposure to IPV damages women's perceptions about their overall self‐image among women with low self‐esteem. 51

Self‐respect is defined as “pride and confidence in oneself; a feeling that one is behaving with honor and dignity” 50 and “feelings of self‐worth.” 52 Women exposed to physical IPV are more likely to report low self‐respect compared women nonexposed. 53 Women exposed to different forms of IPV in long time develop self‐reappraisal—a form of cognitive coping strategy—to restore her reduced self‐respect. 54 Being employed helps to increase women's self‐esteem by strengthening their lowered self‐respect caused by humiliation made by their partners. 44 Women exposed to IPV who have low self‐esteem are less likely to respect and value themselves. 55

5. MODEL CASE

The following model case presents a scenario which contains all the defining attributes. Through use of a model case, to assist the reader with recognizing the concept. It contains all the defining attributes. 21

Charlie, a highly educated, slightly overweight, married woman, suffered from chronic depression. She was constantly exposed to demeaning acts by her husband as he did not find her attractive, nor did he respect her intellect. Additionally, he frequently criticized her in front of her family and friends. Charlie developed negative views of herself and about her value in the world. Consequently, she minimized interactions with others by staying at home when not at work, isolating herself in the workplace, and not participating in collaborative activities. This self‐isolation left her alone with her negative self‐thoughts about how she was to blame for the abuse. These feelings of low value facilitated her poor eating habits and contributed to her being overweight. The weight gain negatively impacted her confidence. Living this duality added to her negative sense of self, contributing to the belief that she had no dignity and therefore was unworthy of respect from anyone including herself.

This model case demonstrates all three defining attributes of self‐esteem. Charlie's continual experiences of psychological IPV diminishes her view of herself (negative self‐concept). She believes that she is worthless and not important for her husband, family, and friends (negative self‐affirmation). These self‐blaming thoughts contribute to her poor eating habits and weight gain which further lowers her confidence and feeling worthy of respect. Therefore, her negative self‐concept, self‐affirmation, and self‐respect has culminated in a lowered self‐esteem.

6. ADDITIONAL CASES

6.1. Borderline case

Borderline cases include most defining attributes of self‐esteem but not all of them and can assist with showcasing what is and what is not the concept. 21

Rose was a survivor of physical, sexual, and psychological IPV currently living in a domestic violence shelter. Her partner had constantly blamed her for being mentally ill and inadequate. After receiving empowerment therapy sessions, Rose's negative perceptions of her abilities and capabilities changed to positive ones. She recognized the IPV experience contributed to her negative self‐concept rather than her mental health status, past mistakes or defects. However, Rose still lacks respect in herself to talk with friends and family about the IPV due to fear of being blamed for causing it.

This is a borderline case. Rose's positive attitude changes helped her to increase her sense of value and affirmation to cope with IPV‐related mental health issues. However, she is not confident enough in meeting with her family and friends after disclosing IPV due to low levels of self‐respect. She experiences lack of confidence and honor caused by exposure to IPV.

6.2. Contrary case

Contrary cases demonstrate none of the defining attributes of self‐esteem. 21

Alicia was a college student who had experienced psychological IPV and currently was feeling depressed. She went to the university counseling services for assistance. Through attending counseling sessions, Alicia gained insight on how her abuse as a child contributed to her use of avoidant behaviors to identify psychological IPV and cope with her depression. She learned important skills and strategies to cope with current and future depressive symptoms in a healthy way. At the end of her last session, she told her counselor that she felt confident that she could overcome with IPV‐related depression.

This contrary case focuses on the concept of self‐efficacy which is different than self‐esteem. Self‐efficacy is a belief that an individual having the power and capability to change a current situation, while self‐esteem involves self‐concept, self‐affirmation, and self‐respect. This contrary case demonstrates Alicia's positive belief that she can overcome depressive symptoms due to psychological IPV exposure. Finally, the counseling sessions empowered her to believe in her ability to cope with IPV‐related depression.

7. ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENCES

The identification of antecedents and consequences is an important step in the concept analysis as it clarifies the reasons for and results of the concept. Furthermore, determination of antecedents and consequences contribute to defining future attributes of the concept in different contexts. 21 IPV literature demonstrates a bidirectional relationship between IPV and self‐esteem. IPV exposure can be an antecedent of low self‐esteem and low self‐esteem can be a risk for IPV exposure. Self‐esteem also has been studied as a moderator between IPV exposure and mental health disorders. 15 , 56 , 57 A major antecedent to low self‐esteem among women is exposure to IPV. The dynamic of IPV is damaging to self‐esteem and in turn impacts self‐worth and identity (i.e., self‐concept) regardless of the woman's sociodemographic background. 33 , 58 Prolonged exposure to psychological IPV is a strong predictor for low self‐esteem in women. 39 , 59 , 60 Higher levels of IPV exposure is associated with lowered levels self‐esteem among women. 61 Finally, victim blaming attitudes by healthcare providers against women experiencing IPV diminish women's self‐esteem. 62

Major reported consequences of low self‐esteem in women of diverse sociocultural and demographic backgrounds experiencing different forms of IPV are mental health outcomes. These include depression, substance abuse, PTSD, higher levels of stress, bipolar disorders, suicidal attempts, and anxiety. 13 , 16 , 44 , 47 , 51 , 62 , 63 Also, low self‐esteem in women exposed to physical, sexual, and psychological IPV also leads to self‐blame. 64

8. EMPIRICAL REFERENTS

Empirical referents are concepts or categories demonstrating the occurrence of the concept itself and measuring the defining attributes. 21 Empirical referents play a critical role in developing future credible and reliable instruments by generating a theoretical background for the content and construct validity of the new instrument. 21 In the context of IPV, numerous self‐related concepts or constructs can be applied to measure the defining attributes. For example, self‐concept can be measured by the level of self‐worth and self‐competence among women experiencing IPV, to which women's negative thoughts and beliefs about themselves are related to their decisions of leaving an abusive relationship. 65 , 66 , 67 The level of self‐affirmation can be assessed by self‐blame. For instance, women experiencing IPV tend to blame themself for IPV exposure or the cause of IPV, which is linked with strong feelings of embarrassment and shame. 60 , 65 Self‐affirmation can also be measured by women's self‐evaluations about their overall self‐image, which is negatively affected by IPV exposure. 52 Self‐respect can be evaluated by the level of self‐efficacy, to which social support interventions improve positive mental outcomes that is associated with increased level of self‐efficacy in women who are survivors of IPV. 68 Likewise, the level of self‐determination can be used to assess the magnitude of self‐respect and self‐worth among women experiencing IPV, to which women tend to perceive lower magnitudes of self‐respect and self‐worth caused by IPV exposure. 67

There were several instruments or scales that measure the defining attributes of self‐esteem noted in the existing literature. These include: The Self‐Concept Form 5 (AF‐5), 69 the Self‐Concept Clarity Scale, 70 the Self‐Determination Scale, 67 and the Self‐Affirmation Measure. 39 From a theoretical standpoint, Steele's Affirmation Theory, cognitive consistency theory, and value expression theory are all frameworks frequently used to develop an instrument or evaluate the characteristics of self‐esteem. 51

9. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING

Results of this concept analysis have yielded several implications for research and practice. Self‐esteem and its defining attributes were identified through analyses of terminologies currently used in scientific literature. However, extant literature lacks a clear definition of self‐esteem specific to the context of IPV. While researchers do employ various instruments to measure self‐esteem in women exposed to different forms of IPV, critical gaps in the literature are clearly defining the role and meaning of self‐esteem in IPV exposure in women from various demographic and cultural backgrounds and ensuring current instruments assess any existing nuances. To address this gap, qualitative and mixed methods research studies are needed to generate culturally appropriate IPV screening tools and interventions that integrate a clear understanding of the concept of self‐esteem that account for key demographic and cultural differences in the relationship between IPV exposure and self‐esteem.

Self‐esteem is a key concept to be included when addressing IPV in healthcare settings. Nurses need to understand that women exposed to IPV may demonstrate varying levels of self‐esteem depending on where they are in the cycle of IPV. Low self‐esteem is a frequently reported IPV‐related mental health outcome. However, women experiencing IPV who have low self‐esteem might not seek help for IPV from nurses. Therefore, it is important that nurses adopt universal screening for different forms of IPV exposure. IPV screening processes should include broad questions about self‐esteem, and its defining attributes, to help to identify IPV‐related health outcomes and refer women to needed healthcare services. Indeed, nurses could lead in the implementation of IPV empowerment and psychological interventions that focus on IPV‐related mental health outcomes and lowered self‐esteem. 2 , 35 , 71 , 72

10. CONCLUSION

Self‐esteem is widely used in the current literature; however, there is a lack of consensus about its conceptual and operational definitions. Furthermore, limited knowledge exists about the precise meaning or description of self‐esteem among women exposed to IPV. Results of this comprehensive empirical and theoretical literature review of self‐esteem, as well as dictionary definitions of defining attributes show that self‐esteem should be defined as a woman's self‐beliefs about their image to others, self‐evaluations about their self‐qualifications, and self‐feelings of their dignity and honor as a human being in the context of IPV. Considering the relationship between low levels of self‐esteem and IPV exposure among women exposed to IPV, the need for warrant qualitative research is to explore how women define self‐esteem from different cultural and sociodemographic backgrounds. By providing conceptual clarity, our hope is that future studies will adopt this definition when measuring self‐esteem, developing IPV screening tools, and creating and testing IPV interventions. Finally, the need for culturally appropriate future studies that examine IPV exposure and self‐esteem among women from different sociodemographic and cultural backgrounds is essential to develop effective culturally appropriate IPV prevention programs centered on improving women's lowered self‐esteem caused by IPV.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Güler A, Bankston K, Smith CR. Self‐esteem in the context of intimate partner violence: A concept analysis. Nurs Forum. 2022;57:1484‐1490. 10.1111/nuf.12798

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

REFERENCES

  • 1. Stockman JK, Hayashi H, Campbell JC. Intimate partner violence and its health impact on disproportionately affected populations, including minorities and impoverished groups. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2015;24(1):62‐79. 10.1089/jwh.2014.4879 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2. Ferranti D, Lorenzo D, Munoz‐Rojas D, Gonzalez‐Guarda RM. Health education needs of intimate partner violence survivors: perspectives from female survivors and social service providers. Public Health Nurs. 2018;35(2):118‐125. 10.1111/phn.12374 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3. Ragavan M, Bruce J, Bair‐Merritt M, et al. Building a novel health curriculum for survivors of intimate partner violence residing at a transitional housing program. Violence Against Women. 2018;24(3):266‐285. 10.1177/1077801217697206 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4. World Health Organization . WHO multi‐country study on women's health and domestic violence against women. Accessed October 20, 2021. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/24159358X/en/
  • 5. Smith SG, Zhang X, Basile KC, et al. The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2015 Data Brief – Updated Release. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2018. Accessed October 21, 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/2015data-brief508.pdf
  • 6. Dicola D, Spaar E. Intimate partner violence. Am Fam Physician. 2016;94(8):646‐651 Accessed April 20, 2021. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2016/1015/afp20161015p646.pdf [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7. Lutgendorf MA. Intimate partner violence and women's health. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;134(3):470‐480. 10.1097/AOG.0000000000003326 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8. Karakurt G, Patel V, Whiting K, Koyutürk M. Mining electronic health records data: domestic violence and adverse health effects. J Fam Violence. 2017;32(1):79‐87. 10.1007/s10896-016-9872-5 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9. Lacey KK, Mouzon DM. Severe physical intimate partner violence and the mental and physical health of U.S. Caribbean Black women. J Women's Health. 2016;25(9):920‐929. 10.1089/jwh.2015.5293 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10. Porter A, Montgomery CO, Montgomery BE, Eastin C, Boyette J, Snead G. Intimate partner violence‐related fractures in the United States: an 8 year review. J Fam Violence. 2019;34(7):601‐609. 10.1007/s10896-018-0007-z [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11. Cho H, Shamrova D, Han JB, Levchenko P. Patterns of intimate partner violence victimization and survivors' help‐seeking. J Interpers Violence. 2020;35(21‐22):4558‐4582. 10.1177/0886260517715027 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12. Hegarty KL, O'doherty LJ, Chondros P, et al. Effect of type and severity of intimate partner violence on women's health and service use: findings from a primary care trial of women afraid of their partners. J Interpers Violence. 2013;28(2):273‐294. 10.1177/0886260512454722 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13. Thananowan N, Vongsirimas N. Factors mediating the relationship between intimate partner violence and cervical cancer among Thai women. J Interpers Violence. 2016;31(4):715‐731. 10.1177/0886260514556108 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14. Shackelford TK. Self‐esteem in marriage. Pers Individ Dif. 2001;30(3):371‐390. 10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00023-4 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 15. Costa ECV, Gomes SC. Social support and self‐esteem moderate the relation between intimate partner violence and depression and anxiety symptoms among Portuguese women. J Fam Violence. 2018;33(5):355‐368. 10.1007/s10896-018-9962-7 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 16. Lin‐Roark IH, Church AT, McCubbin LD. Battered women's evaluations of their intimate partners as a possible mediator between abuse and self‐esteem. J Fam Viol. 2015;30(2):201‐214. 10.1007/s10896-014-9661-y [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 17. Islam MDJ, Mazerolle P, Broidy L, Baird K. Exploring the prevalence and correlates associated with intimate partner violence during pregnancy in Bangladesh. J Interpers Violence. 2021;36(1‐2):663‐690. 10.1177/0886260517730029 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18. Soldevilla JM, Feixas G, Varlotta N, Cirici R. Characteristics of the construct systems of women victims of intimate partner violence. J Constr Psychol. 2014;27(2):105‐119. 10.1080/10720537.2014.879521 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 19. Gonzalez‐Guarda RM, Vermeesch AL, Florom‐Smith AL, McCabe BE. Birthplace, culture, self‐esteem, and intimate partner violence among community‐dwelling Hispanic women. Violence Against Women. 2013;19(1):6‐23. 10.1177/1077801212475336 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20. Griffiths A. Domestic violence in teenage intimate relationships: young people's views on awareness, prevention, intervention and regaining one's sense of wellbeing. Educational & Child Psychology. 2019;36(1):9‐26. [Google Scholar]
  • 21. Walker LO, Avant KC. Strategies for Theory Construction in Nursing. 6th ed. Pearson; 2019. [Google Scholar]
  • 22. Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;29:n71. 10.1136/bmj.n71 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23. Merriam‐Webster online dictionary . Self‐esteem. Accessed October 21, 2021. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/self-esteem
  • 24. Wikipedia online dictionary . Self‐esteem. Accessed October 20, 2021. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Self-esteem%26oldid=1048423515
  • 25. Dictionary.com online dictionary . Self‐esteem. Accessed October 20, 2021. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/self-esteem
  • 26. Colman AM. A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press; 2009. Accessed October 20, 2021. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001/acref-9780199534067 [Google Scholar]
  • 27. Blackburn S. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press; 2016. Accessed October 21, 2021. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198735304.001.0001/acref-9780198735304-e-3434 [Google Scholar]
  • 28. Cicei CC. Examining the association between self‐concept clarity and self‐esteem on a sample of Romanian students. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2012;46:4345‐4348. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.252 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 29. Oxford online dictionary . Global Self‐esteem. Accessed Octob er April 20, 2022. https://www.oxfordreference.com/search?q=global%2Bself-esteem%26searchBtn=Search%26isQuickSearch=true
  • 30. Rosenberg M, Schooler C, Schoenbach C, Rosenberg F. Global self‐esteem and specific self‐esteem: different concepts, different outcomes. Am Sociol Rev. 1995;60(1):141‐156. 10.2307/2096350 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 31. Chung JL. Korean Women, Self‐Esteem, and Practical Theology: Transformative Care. Palgrave Macmillan; 2017. Accessed October 20, 2021 https://uc.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://rave.ohiolink.edu.uc.idm.oclc.org/ebooks/ebc/9783319695082 [Google Scholar]
  • 32. Miller PJ, Cho GE Self‐Esteem in Time and Place: How American Families Imagine, Enact, and Personalize a Cultural Ideal.; 2017. 10.1093/oso/9780199959723.001.0001 [DOI]
  • 33. Matheson FI, Daoud N, Hamilton‐Wright S, Borenstein H, Pedersen C, O'Campo P. Where did she go? The transformation of self‐esteem, self‐identity, and mental well‐being among women who have experienced intimate partner violence. Women's Health Issues. 2015;25(5):561‐569. 10.1016/j.whi.2015.04.006 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34. Bernardo ABI, Estrellado AF. Subjective well‐being of Filipino women who experienced intimate partner violence: a person‐centered analysis. Int J Adv Counselling. 2017;39(4):360‐376. 10.1007/s10447-017-9303-1 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 35. Crespo M, Arinero M, Soberón C. Analysis of effectiveness of individual and group trauma‐focused interventions for female victims of intimate partner violence. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(4):1952. 10.3390/ijerph18041952 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36. Hazen AL, Connelly CD, Soriano FI, Landsverk JA. Intimate partner violence and psychological functioning in Latina women. Health Care Women Int. 2008;29(3):282‐299. 10.1080/07399330701738358 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37. Papadakaki M, Tzamalouka GS, Chatzifotiou S, Chliaoutakis J. Seeking for risk factors of intimate partner violence (IPV) in a Greek national sample: the role of self‐esteem. J Interpers Violence. 2009;24(5):732‐750. 10.1177/0886260508317181 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38. Zlotnick C, Johnson DM, Kohn R. Intimate partner violence and long‐term psychosocial functioning in a national sample of American women. J Interpers Violence. 2006;21(2):262‐275. 10.1177/0886260505282564 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39. Lynch SM, Graham‐Bermann SA. Woman abuse and self‐affirmation: influences on women's self‐esteem. Violence Against Women. 2000;6(2):178‐197. 10.1177/10778010022181787 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 40. Reed GL, Enright RD. The effects of forgiveness therapy on depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress for women after spousal emotional abuse. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74(5):920‐929. 10.1037/0022-006X.74.5.920 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41. Altmann T, Roth M. The Self‐esteem Stability Scale (SESS) for cross‐sectional direct assessment of self‐esteem stability. Front Psychol. 2018;9:91. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00091 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42. Bahadir‐Yilmaz E, Öz F. The effectiveness of empowerment program on increasing self‐esteem, learned resourcefulness, and coping ways in women exposed to domestic violence. Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2018;39(2):135‐141. 10.1080/01612840.2017.1368750 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43. Hackett S, McWhirter PT, Lesher S. The therapeutic efficacy of domestic violence victim interventions. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2016;17(2):123‐132. 10.1177/1524838014566720 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44. Rothman EF, Hathaway J, Stidsen A, de Vries HF How employment helps female victims of intimate partner violence: a qualitative study. J Occup Health Psychol, 2007;12(2):136‐43. 10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.136 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45. Woods SJ, Isenberg MA. Adaptation as a mediator of intimate abuse and traumatic stress in battered women. Nurs Sci Q. 2001;14(3):215‐221. 10.1177/08943180122108463 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46. American Psychological Association (APA) online Dictionary of Psychology . Self‐esteem. Accessed October 21 2021. https://dictionary.apa.org/self-esteem
  • 47. Carbonu DM, Soares JM. Forensic nursing in Pakistan: bridging the gap between victimized women and health care delivery systems. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 1997;35(6):19‐27. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48. Campbell JC, Soeken KL. Forced sex and intimate partner violence: effects on women's risk and women's health. Violence Against Women. 1999;5(9):1017‐1035. 10.1177/1077801299005009003 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 49. Mondolfi Miguel ML, Rosa Pino‐Juste M. Psycho‐social profile of battered women in Galicia, Spain: distress as a result of intimate partner violence and child abuse. Health Care Women Int. 2019;40(11):1229‐1248. 10.1080/07399332.2019.1571061 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Stevenson A, ed. Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford University Press; 2010. Accessed October 20, 2021. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199571123.001.0001/acref-9780199571123
  • 51. Nicholson SB, Lutz DJ. The importance of cognitive dissonance in understanding and treating victims of intimate partner violence. J Aggression Maltreat Trauma. 2017;26(5):475‐492. 10.1080/10926771.2017.1314989 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 52. American Psychological Association (APA) online Dictionary of Psychology . Self‐respect. Accessed October 21, 2021. https://dictionary.apa.org/self-respect
  • 53. Ehrensaft MK, Langhinrichsen‐Rohling J, Heyman RE, O'Leary KD, Lawrence E. Feeling controlled in marriage: a phenomenon specific to physically aggressive couples. J Fam Psychol. 1999;13(1):20‐32. 10.1037/0893-3200.13.1.20 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 54. Zink T, Jacobson CJ, Pabst S, Regan S, Fisher BS. A lifetime of intimate partner violence: coping strategies of older women. J Interpers Violence. 2006;21(5):634‐651. 10.1177/0886260506286878 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55. Sheikh F, Khodabakhshi Koolaee A, Rahmatizadeh M. The comparison of self‐differentiation and self‐concept in divorced and non‐divorced women who experience domestic violence. Int J High Risk Behav Addict. 2013;2(2):66‐71. 10.5812/ijhrba.10029 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56. Ali PA, Naylor PB. Intimate partner violence: a narrative review of the biological and psychological explanations for its causation. Aggress Violent Behav. 2013;18(3):373‐382. 10.1016/j.avb.2013.01.003 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 57. Bassuk E, Dawson R, Huntington N. Intimate partner violence in extremely poor women: longitudinal patterns and risk markers. J Fam Viol. 2006;21(6):387‐399. 10.1007/s10896-006-9035-1 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 58. Van Parys AS, Deschepper E, Michielsen K, et al. Intimate partner violence and psychosocial health, a cross‐sectional study in a pregnant population. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2015;15(1):278. 10.1186/s12884-015-0710-1 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59. Cañete‐Lairla M, Gil‐Lacruz M. Psychosocial variables associated with verbal abuse as a form of intimate partner violence against women in a Spanish sample. J Aggress Maltreatment Trauma. 2018;27(3):237‐255. 10.1080/10926771.2017.1320343 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 60. Tutty LM, Babins‐Wagner R, Rothery MA. You're not alone: mental health outcomes in therapy groups for abused women. J Fam Violence. 2016;31(4):489‐497. 10.1007/s10896-015-9779-6 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 61. Parvin K, Mamun MA, Gibbs A, Jewkes R, Naved RT. The pathways between female garment workers' experience of violence and development of depressive symptoms. PLoS One. 2018;13(11):e0207485. 10.1371/journal.pone.0207485 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62. Karakurt G, Smith D, Whiting J. Impact of intimate partner violence on women's mental health. J Fam Viol. 2014;29(7):693‐702. 10.1007/s10896-014-9633-2 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63. Bradley R, Schwartz AC, Kaslow NJ. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among low‐income, African American women with a history of intimate partner violence and suicidal behaviors: self‐esteem, social support, and religious coping. J Trauma Stress. 2005;18(6):685‐696. 10.1002/jts.20077 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64. Reich CM, Jones JM, Woodward MJ, Blackwell N, Lindsey LD, Beck JG. Does self‐blame moderate psychological adjustment following intimate partner violence. J Interpers Violence. 2015;30(9):1493‐1510. 10.1177/0886260514540800 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65. Idemudia ES. Self‐concepts and demographic characteristics of battered women in Gauteng, South Africa. Curationis. 2009;32(1):45‐51. 10.4102/curationis.v32i1.874 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 66. Schaefer LM, Howell KH, Sheddan HC, Napier TR, Shoemaker HL, Miller‐Graff LE. The road to resilience: strength and coping among pregnant women exposed to intimate partner violence. J Interpers Violence. 2021;36(17‐18):8382‐8408. 10.1177/0886260519850538 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 67. Wareham J, Wagers SM. Testing the generality of an internal power theory of interpersonal violence across sex and race/ethnicity. J Soc Pers Relat. 2020;37(12):3083‐3101. 10.1177/0265407520948618 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 68. Ogbe E, Harmon S, Van den Bergh R, Degomme O. A systematic review of intimate partner violence interventions focused on improving social support and/mental health outcomes of survivors. PLoS One. 2020;15(6):e0235177. 10.1371/journal.pone.0235177 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 69. Sáez G, López‐Nuñez C, Carlos‐Vivas J, et al. A multicomponent program to improve self‐concept and self‐esteem among intimate partner violence victims: a study protocol for a randomized controlled pilot trial. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(9):4930. 10.3390/ijerph18094930 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70. Campbell JD, Trapnell PD, Heine SJ, Katz IM, Lavallee LF, Lehman DR. Self‐concept clarity: measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1996;70:141‐156. [Google Scholar]
  • 71. Marrs Fuchsel CL, Brummett A. Intimate partner violence prevention and intervention group‐format programs for immigrant Latinas: a systematic review. J Fam Viol. 2021;36(2):209‐221. 10.1007/s10896-020-00160-6 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 72. Hameed M, O'doherty L, Gilchrist G, et al. Psychological therapies for women who experience intimate partner violence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;7(7):013017. 10.1002/14651858.CD013017.pub2 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Articles from Nursing Forum are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES