Fig. 2.

Vector-borne pathogens and their vertebrate hosts and dipteran vectors transmitted in human-modified habitat. (1) Leishmania spp. infects humans via sandfly bites in (a) zoonotic cycles (using domestic dogs as the main reservoirs) and in (b) anthroponotic cycles (i.e. human-to-human transmission). (2) Dengue virus infects mostly humans and is vectored by the mosquito Aedes aegypti. (3) Human malaria parasites are transmitted among humans by Anopheles mosquitoes in residential and agricultural areas. (4) West Nile virus circulates among birds and is vectored by Culex mosquitoes and infects humans mainly in residential and in agricultural areas. (5) Spillover of pathogen from domestic to wildlife animals, here illustrated by the spillover of Plasmodium juxtanucleare from domestic chickens to wild birds (Ferreira-Junior et al., 2018). (6) Avian haemosporidian prevalence has been positively and/or negatively associated with anthropization depending on the parasite genera (e.g. Plasmodium or Haemoproteus), the type of anthropic impact (e.g. farming, urbanization, pollution, etc.) and the geographic region of the study (e.g. Neotropics, Europe, etc.). Urbanization and landscape modifications driven by human activities can have several environmental effects, such as increases in (A) temperature and (B) environmental pollution. Figure created with BioRender.com.