Skip to main content
. 2023 Feb 7;10(1):35–51. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2023004

Table 3. Summary of clinical recommendations for the non-pharmacological methods.

Type of treatment Effect on ADHD Core symptoms Effect on Related Behaviour problems Clinically Recommended Alone
Combined Stimulants and Behavioural therapy (BT) Superior to medications only [5]. Moderate to High ES YES
Combined Stimulants and Cognitive training (CT) More effective in improving ADHD symptoms [32]. Moderate to High ES YES
Combined Stimulants and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) More effective in improving ADHD symptoms [17]. Improve problematic and antisocial behaviours [17]. YES
Stimulants and Executive Function (EF) training Superior to medications only Significantly improve obesity management [24]. YES
Behavioural therapy (BT) Zero to Moderate ES [20].

  • No significant effects on self-rated mental health or general well-being [30].

  • Low to Moderate effects on parental knowledge, parenting style, children's emotional, social and academic functioning, reduced levels of challenging behaviours [20],[30],[39].

 NO
Computer-based CT (All types) Zero to Significant effects on core symptoms [33]. Improves EF [22]. NO
CT game for attention reduction in core symptoms [31]. reduction in functional EEG changes [31]. NO
CT for working memory (WM) Either no effect or mixed effects on core symptoms. [15],[32] Improved verbal and visuo-spatial WM [32]. NO
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) Zero to Moderate ES [34]. Zero to Moderate effects on functional impairment [34]. NO
NeuroFeedback [NF] Zero to large ES on core symptoms [35]. Effect is mixed for academic & social skills [36],[37]. NO
Parental Psychoeducation Significant reduction of core symptoms [18]. improved cognitive levels significantly [18]. NO
Classroom interventions Reduced off-task and disruptive behaviours [40]. NO
Cardio exercise Improve attention and academic performance [23],[41]. Improves EF-based events-related brain potentials [23],[41]. NO
Meditation Low to moderate efficacy [19]. NO

*Note: BT – Behaviour Therapy; CBT – Cognitive Behaviour Therapy; CT – Cognitive Training; EF – Executive Functioning; ES – Effect size; WM – Working memory.