No	Author	Year	Effect Measure	Study Group	Comparator Group	OR (95% CI)/B/r/π/p-Value	Statistical Adjustment	Direction of Effect
1	James [17]	1990	Regression coefficient	NA	NA	B = 0.09	not done	negative
2	Ruggiero [18]	2003	Mean difference	10.35 (7.89)	7.18 (6.65)	p < 0.01	not done	positive
3	Bjorvantn [19]	2012	Mean difference	5.0 (2.3)	3.5 (3.1)	p < 0.001	not done	positive
4	Øyane [20]	2013	Odds ratio	Not stated	Not stated	1.35 (0.75–2.42)	done	negative
5	Thun [21]	2014	Regression coefficient	NA	NA	B = −0.05	done	negative
6	Gong [22]	2014	Regression Coefficient	NA	NA	B = 1.53	done	positive
7	Berthelsen [23]	2015	Odds ratio	Not stated	Not stated	1.20 (0.71–2.03)	not done	negative
8	Togo [24]	2017	Cohen’s d/odds ratio	550/1006	351/762	Cohens’ d = 0.084	not done	positive
9	Hall [25]	2018	Odds ratio	Not stated	Not stated	1.51 (0.91–2.51)	done	negative
10	Booker [26]	2018	Mean difference/R-squared	7.54 (4.28)	3.78 (3.24)	R2 = 0.184	done	positive
11	Tahghighi [27]	2019	Mean difference	Not stated	Not stated	p = 0.514	done	negative
12	Khade [28]	2019	Correlation coefficient	Not stated	Not stated	not stated	not done	negative
13	Mbanga [29]	2019	Odds ratio	Not stated	Not stated	1.58 (1.01–2.48)	done	positive
14	Bukhari [30]	2019	Proportional difference	Not stated	Not stated	p = 0.012	not done	positive
15	Dai [31]	2019	Odds ratio	Not stated	Not stated	1.83 (1.23–2.72)	done	positive
16	Bilge [32]	2020	Mean difference	Not stated	Not stated	p < 0.001	done	positive
17	Choi [33]	2020	Mean difference/Odds ratio	7.64 (3.35), 41/36	6.30 (3.64), 41/98	p = 0.014	not done	positive
18	Park [34]	2020	Mean difference	43.1 (6.4)	35.3 (4.9)	p = 0.0003	not done	positive
19	Vitale [35]	2022	Regression coefficient	NA	NA	B = −0.019	done	negative
20	Yuxin li [36]	2022	Odds ratio	2305/3773	1515/1588	1.54 (1.4–1.69)	done	positive
OR (95% CI): odds ratio (95% confidence interval), B: regression coefficient, r: correlation coefficient, π: prevalence/proportion, NA: not applicable.