Table 4.
Examples of substances recognised by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as safe for food industry use that have been used to construct scaffolds.
| Biomaterial | Food Industry Use |
Tissue Engineering | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Technique | Cell Culture |
Application | Reference | ||
| Chitosan | A1077 4 | Freeze- drying |
Fibroblasts (NIH3T3) | Potential for tissue regeneration | Nwe, Furuike and Tamura (2009) [90] |
| Beta-glucan soluble fibre 1 | Component of cell wall material in barley and oats 5 | Electrospinning | L6 myoblasts (NCCS, Pune) | Potential skin scaffold material |
Basha, Sampath Kumar and Doble (2017) [91] |
| Starches | EM, St, Tck 6 | Suspension, free- drying |
Cancer cell line (HepG2) | Matrix for culturing living cells |
Prasopdee et al. (2021) [92] |
| Psyllium husk 1 | St, FS, 0.5% by weight in frozen desserts 7 | Freeze- drying |
L929 fibroblast | Potential macroporous scaffold in TE | Poddar et al. (2019) [93] |
| Powdered cellulose 1 | Aa, Ba, EM, Ga, H, St, Tck 6 | Decellularisation | NIH-3T3 stably expressing GFP-actin | Potential macroporous and fibrous scaffold in TE | Bar-Shai et al. (2021) [94] |
| Guar gum 1 | EM, St, Tck 6 | Hydrogels/freeze-drying | Human keratinocytes (HaCaT) | Scaffolds desirable for soft TE | Indurkar et al. (2020) [95] |
| Pectin 1 | EM, Gg, Ga, St 6 | Hydrogel/crosslinking/electrospinning | Human bone marrow–derived MSCs | Potential scaffold for vascular TE | Li et al. (2019) [96] |
| Locust bean gum 1 | EM, St, Tc 6 | Cryogels/freeze- drying |
NIH-3T3 cells | Macroporous scaffold for cartilage and other soft tissue |
Bektas et al. (2021) [97] |
| Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose 1 | Ba, EM, Ga, St, Tc 6 | Crosslinking/freeze-drying | Human Saos-2 osteoblast-like cells | Potential scaffold for bone graft for alveolar bone regeneration |
Feroz and Dias (2021) [98] |
| Arabinoxylan 2 | Binder, Gg, Txz, St, Tck, EM 8 | Freeze- drying |
MC3T3-E1 cell lines | Regenerate fractured bone | Khan et al. (2021) [99] |
| Alginate 2 | EM, FAg, FE, FAd, PAd, St, Tck, Sag, Txz 3 | Hydrogel/crosslinking | C2C12 murine myoblasts | Potential to regenerate skeletal muscle |
Aparicio-Collado et al. (2022) [100] |
| Acacia (gum arabic) 2 | Ba, carrier, EM, Ga, St, Tck 6 | Crosslinking/gel | MSCs from human placenta and IVD | Potential candidate in applications in TE | Rekulapally et al. (2021) [101] |
| Agarose | In agar (Ba, carrier, EM, Ga, Gg, H, St, Tck) 6 | Hydrogels | Murine myoblast C2C12 cell line | Polysaccharide–protein scaffolds as potential candidates for cultured meat |
Wollschlaeger et al. (2022) [86] |
| 75Gellan | EM, FoAg, St, Tck 6 | ||||
| Xanthan gum | EM, FoAg, ST, Tck 6 | ||||
| Locust bean gum | |||||
| Pea protein | |||||
| Soy Protein | |||||
| Polyvinyl alcohol | Ga, Tc 6 | Freeze- drying |
Not used | Potential to be applied in the field of TE that demands high strength | Sun et al. (2022) [102] |
Aa—anticaking agent; Ba—bulking agent; ECM—extracellular matrix; EM—emulsifier; FAd—formulation aid; FAg—firming agent; FE—flavour enhancer; FoAg—foaming agent; FS—substances permitted as optional ingredients in a standardised food; Ga—glazing agent; Gg—gelling agent; H—humectant; IVD—intervertebral disc; MSC—mesenchymal stem cells; PAd—processing aid; Sag—surface-active agent; St—stabiliser; Tck—thickener; TE—tissue engineering; Txz—texturiser. 1 The FDA has identified the following isolates or synthetic non-digestible carbohydrates as meeting the definition of dietary fibre [103]. 2 The FDA intends to propose that the following non-digestible carbohydrates be added to the definition of dietary fibre [103]. 3 [87]. 4 A1077 fungal chitosan from Aspergillus niger is a processing aid for a number of purposes including as a fining and clarifying agent in the manufacture of wine, beer, cider, spirits and food-grade ethanol [104]. 5 [88]; FAO (2022). 6 [105]. 7 [106]. 8 Corn bran arabinoxylan (BFG) is proposed for use as a formulation aid at a maximum use level of 3% and a good source of fibre at a maximum use level of 3.8 g/serving in a variety of food categories. [107].