Table 1.
Immunomodulatory properties of anthelmintic drugs.
| Drug | Cell Type | Immunomodulatory Effect | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1-(2-(4-Morpholinyl)ethyl)-2-(3-nitrobenzoylamino) benzimidazole (Benzimidazole derivaties) |
(In silico) | < IL-1 signaling. | [39] |
| BMDMs | < TLR signaling, MAPK phosphorylation, and nuclear translocation of NF-ĸB. < Pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine release. |
[40] | |
| Splenocytes/serum | < Splenocyte proliferation. < Serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. |
[27] | |
| Albendazole | Keratinocytes | < Infiltration of T-cells and neutrophils in psoriatic plaques. < Expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. |
[41] |
| Mebendazole | THP-1 | M1 polarization of THP1 and arrest of HT-29 cell proliferation. | [42] |
| PBMCs | M1 polarization of CD14+ monocytes/Mϕ in αCD3/IL-2 stimulated PBMCs, release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and induction of tumor cell apoptosis once co-cultured with A549NucLightRed cells. | [43] | |
| Flubendazole | ESCC | < NF-ĸB activity by inhibition of IĸBα kinase function and phosphorylation of the p65 subunit. | [44] |
| TNBC/CRC/NSCLC | < STAT3 activity. | [45,46,47] | |
| Niclosamide | Breast cancer | < MDSC tumor infiltration. | [48] |
| DCs/T cells | < Production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in response to LPS. < T-cell priming. |
[49] | |
| Levamisole | Mo-DCs | > HLA-DR expression, IL-10/IL-12p40 release, and Th1 cell differentiation. |
[50] |
| BMDCs | > MHC expression, IL-12p70, TNF-α and IL-1β release, and Th1 cell differentiation. | [51] | |
| DCs/T cells | > TLR7/8 and IRF7 signaling, DCs and CTL activation, and IFN-γ production | [52] |
Abbreviations: IL-: interleukin-; BMDM: bone-marrow-derived macrophages; TLR: toll-like receptor; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; NF-ĸB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; Mϕ: macrophages; STAT: signal transducer and activator of transcription; MDSC: myeloid-derived suppressor cell; LPS: lipopolysaccharides; DC: dendritic cell; HLA-DR: human leukocyte antigen-DR isotype; Th1: T-helper-1; MHC: major histocompatibility complex; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; IRF-: interferon regulatory factor; CTL: cytotoxic T lymphocytes; IFN: interferon. STAT: signal transducer and activator of transcription; PD-1: programmed cell death protein-1; PD-L1: programmed death-ligand 1; Ub: ubiquitin; ICD: immunogenic cell death; DC: dendritic cells.