Table 3.

Human studies on cytoplasmic alarmins in food allergy.

Alarmins	FA Type	Food	Study Design	Age (Year/Months)	F/M	N° of Patients	Country	Year [Ref.]
Cytoplasmic
S100 proteins (calprotectin)	IgE	Cow’s milk	Case–Control	0–9ms	49/41	90	China	2021 [65]
	IgE	Cow’s milk	Longitudinal	33ys	127/33	160	Italy	2011 [66]
	IgE	Cow’s milk, Egg, Cod	Cohort	Unknown	6/2	8	Sweden	2016 [55]
	Non-IgE (NICMPA)	Cow’s milk	Cross-sectional	9ms	3/5	8	Turkey	2014 [81]
	Non-IgE (NICMPA)	Cow’s milk	Cross-sectional	8ms	Unknown	18	Finland	2014 [79]
	Non-IgE (NICMPA)	Cow’s milk	Cross-sectional	1m	14/16	30	Spain	2021 [82]
	Non-IgE (NICMPA)	Cow’s milk	Prospective cohort	12–24ms	8/9	17	Spain, Italy	2018 [83]
	Non-IgE (NICMPA)	Cow’s milk	Cross-sectional	4ms	15/25	40	Spain	2016 [84]
	Non-IgE (FPIAP)	Cow’s milk	Cross-sectional	4ms	9/18	27	Poland	2020 [91]
	Non-IgE (FPIES)	Fish, cow’s milk, egg, wheat, rice	Cross-sectional	3ms	5/3	8	Japan	2014 [94]
HSP	IgE	Milk	Comparative	53ys	13/13	26	USA	2002 [70]
	IgE	Peanut, soy, tree nuts, crab, clam, lobster, egg.	Cross-sectional, proteomic analysis	8ys	5/6	11	USA	2011 [71]
ATP	Not evaluated
Uric acid	IgE	Cow’s milk	Survey	Unknown	64/87	151	Republic of Korea, USA *	2016 [77]

CRAMP, cathelin-related antimicrobial peptide; EDN, eosinophil-derived neurotoxin; HMGB1, high-mobility group box 1 protein; HMGN1, high-mobility group nucleosome-binding domain 1 protein; HSP, heat-shock proteins; ATP, adenosine 5′-triphosphate; *, adult population from USA.