Table 1.

Role of different cytokines in CLL and their mechanism of action.

References	Cytokine	Action	Mechanism
Jaffe et al. [38]	IL-9	Stimulates growth and survival of CLL cells	Activates the JAK/STAT pathway and the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway
Alhakeem et al. [39]	IL-10	Suppresses anti-tumor immunity	Has been demonstrated to reduce the generation of effector CD4 and CD8 T cells
Chen et al. [40]	TGF-β	Inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis	Binds to TGF-β receptor on CLL cells, activating Smad proteins to inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis
Coscia et al. [41]	IL-4	Enhances survival and proliferation of CLL cells Reduces apoptosis	Activates the JAK/STAT pathway and increases the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins
Foa et al. [42]	TNF-α	Induces apoptosis	Binds to TNF receptor on CLL cells, activating caspases to induce programmed cell death
Wang et al. [43]	IL-6	Promotes the survival and proliferation of CLL cells	Activates the JAK/STAT pathway and increases the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins
Huang et al. [44]	IL-2	Enhances the function of CLL cells	Promotes the differentiation and proliferation of CLL cells
Jadidi-Niaragh et al. [45]	IL-17	Promotes the survival and proliferation of CLL cells	Activates the NF-κB pathway and increases the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins
Mo et al. [46]	IFN-γ	Inhibits proliferation	Binds to IFN-γ receptor on CLL cells, activating the JAK-STAT pathway to inhibit cell proliferation
De Cecco [47]	IL-21	Induces the apoptosis of CLL cells	Activates the JAK/STAT pathway and upregulates pro-apoptotic proteins
Gelebart [48]	IL-22	Reduced apoptosis Enhances the survival and proliferation of CLL cells	Activates the JAK/STAT pathway and increases the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins
Cutrona [49]	IL-23	Promotes the survival and proliferation of CLL cells	Activates the JAK/STAT pathway and increases the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins