Table 1.

Mechanism of action and clinal stage of new and potential therapeutic targets in axial-SpA.

Target	Drug/Inhibitor	Clinical Stage
TNF-α	Infliximab, adalimumab, golimumab, certolizumab etanercept	Efficacy confirmed in phase III clinical trials [142,143,144,145,146,147,148]
IL-17A IL-17A/F	Secukinumab, ixekizumab Bimekizumab	Efficacy confirmed in phase III clinical trials [191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198] Efficacy confirmed in phase III clinical trials [204]
IL-23	IL-23/12 p40 inhibitor: ustekinumab IL-23 p19 inhibitor: risankizumab, guselkumab	Efficacy in axial-SpA was not confirmed in phase III clinical trials [205] Post hoc analysis from phase III clinical trials showed efficacy in axial-PsA [212] Efficacy in axial-SpA was not confirmed in a phase II clinical trial [206] Post hoc analysis from phase III clinical trials showed efficacy in axial-PsA [213]
JAK/STAT pathway	JAKs inhibitors: tofacitinib, upadacitinib, filgotinib	Efficacy confirmed in phase III clinical trials [226,227,228,229,230]
GM-CSF	Namilumab	Efficacy was not confirmed in a phase IIa clinical trial (NCT03622658)
PI3K/Akt/mTor pathway	PI3Kδ inhibitor (seletalisib) mTor inhibitor (rapamycin)	NA NA