. 2023 Mar 29;24(7):6414. doi: 10.3390/ijms24076414

Table 1.

Effects of postbiotics on obesity parameters: in vitro and in vivo studies.

Source	Postbiotic	Model	Treatment/Duration	Biological Effects	Reference
Muramyl dipeptide
Commercial	MDP	Mouse: wild type (WT) C57BL/6J, Irf4^−/− mice, hepatocyte-specific NOD2^−/− mice, and leptin-deficient (ob/ob) mice	(a) MDP 100 µg; 4 days/week, 5 weeks), + HFD. (b) HFD, 10 weeks + daily injection of MDP, 3 days + final MDP injection before 24 h of experiments	↓Obesity, ↓hepatic insulin resistance, ↓fat inflammation Upregulated NOD2-IRF4 pathway	Cavallari et al. [63]
Commercial	MDP	Male and female: Adipocyte-specific Irf4^−/− (IRF4 knockout mice (AdipoIRF4^fl/fl) and control without adiponectin-cre transgene (WT^fl/fl), 3 days before LPS injection + 6 h fasting	Acute endotoxaemia experiments: MDP 100 μg, 3 days, 4th day, LPS (i.p., ultrapure) 0.2 mg/kg, 6 h prior to GTT. Diet-induced obesity (a) Standard chow diet (b) Treatment group (60% kcal fat diet) + MDP (100 μg) 4 days/week, GTT performed At 5th week, eWAT collected	MDP: For blood glucose-lowering effects during endotoxaemia and HFD-fed male mice, adipocyte IRF4 was essential. No alteration in glucose level in endotoxaemia in female mice HFD-fed female mice had lower blood glucose level than the control. Inflammatory markers: ↓TNF, ↓CCL2, ↓CXCL10, ↓CD8, ↓IL-1β, ↓IL-10, ↓IL-6, ↓IFNγ, ↓CD4, ↓NOS2, and ↓NLRP3 in male and female mice in both groups	Duggan et al. [65]
S-layer protein
Lentilactobacillus kefiri (DH1 and DH5 (SDH1 and SDH5) and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DH1606, DH1608, and DH1609 (LCM6, LCM8, and LCM9)	SLPs	RAW 264.7 cells	LPS (0.1 μg/mL), SLPs (10 or 20 μg/mL), 24 h at 37 °C	↓IL-6 in LCM8, LCM9 and SDH5 ↓NF-κB p65 with SLCM9	Kim E. et al. [68]
	SLPs	C57BL/6J (n = 10/group)	(a) Control group (saline) (b) Treatment HFD-SDH5 group (SLP from DH5 [SDH5] 120 mg/kg BW), and HFD-SLCM8 group (SLP from LCM8 120 mg/kg BW), 6 weeks	In SDH5 and SLCM8: ↓body weight gains and adipose tissue weight, ↓plasma TG, ↓insulin In SDH5: ↓TC, ↓LDL-C In SLCM8: adipocyte differentiation: ↓KLF8, acute phase response: ↓TRDN, ↓LBP, adipogenesis: ↓ADAM23, autophagy: ↓MAP1a, ↓Atp6v0d2, immune response: ↓ADAM8, ↓SLAMF7, ↓DCSTAMP, ↓MARC1, ↓UBD, ↓TREML4, ↓DOCK8, Inflammatory response: ↓EAR12, ↓HORMAD2, ↓NCAN, ↓Gpr50, ↓LIPF, ↓OXTR, ↓TREM2, ↓RGS1, ↓Tm4sf19, ↓Sfrp5 Upregulated gene expression ↑SH2B2, ↑MOGAT1, ↑FCNA, ↑EBF 2, ↑GPX3, ↑KLHL2, ↑CCR8, ↑CES1f/2c, ↑C2
Lactobacillus curvatus (HKLC), and Lactobacillus plantarum (HKLP)	SLPs and heat-killed LAB	3T3-L1 preadipocytes	SLPs (LC and LP) 7.5 μg/mL, 48 h	Inhibited lipid accumulation: LPSLP (19%), LCSLP (24%), and LPCSLP (24%), ↓FABP4, ↓PPARγ,. Induced apoptosis: ↓BCL-2, ↑caspase 3, HKLC, HKLP, and HKLPC: ↓FABP4	Yoon et al. [69]
Lipoteichoic acid
Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BPL1 (CECT 8145)	LTAs	Caenorhabditis elegans	LTA BPL1-0.1, 1.0, 10, 20, 50 μg/mL	↓Fat content in nematodes ↓TG through involvement of IGF-1 pathway	Balaguer et al. [75]
EPS
Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG	EPS	3T3-L1 cells	10.0 μg/mL, 6 days	↓ Intracellular TAG, Genes of adipose differentiation and adipogenesis: ↓PPARγ, ↓SCD1, ↓ap2, ↓DGAT1 ↓FAS, ↓LPL	Zhang et al. [81]
Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG	EPS	C57BL/6J mice (n = 6)	(a) Control (b) HFD+ EPS (50 mg/kg, every two days), 14 days	Significant ↓fat mass: subcutaneous, gonadal, and pararenal, ↓serum TAG levels, ↓TAG and cholesterol ester in liver, ↓PPARγ, ↓ap2, ↓FAS, ↓SCD1, ↓LPL, ↓DGAT1.
Lactobacillus plantarum L-14	EPS	3T3-L1 cells and hBM-MSCs	50 and 100 μg/mL	L-14 extract inhibited differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells and hBM-MSCs. ↓TAG storage in mature adipocytes ↓PPARγ, ↓C/EBPα, ↓FAS, ↓LPL, ↓CD36, ↓GPDH, EPS: ↑AMPK pathway ↓PPARγ, ↓C/EBPα, ↑adiponectin, ↓p-ACC, ↓SREBP-1c, ↑AKT, ↑p-AMPKα	Lee et al. [82]
Surface layer protein, exopolysaccharide, and prebiotics
Kefir LAB: Leuconostoc mesenteroides DH 1606 (LCM6) and L. mesenteroides DH 1608 (LCM8)	EPS S-layer protein	C57BL/6 mice (n = 120)	(a) Control: HFD + saline (b) HFD + LCM6 EPS (250 mg/kg BW) (c) HFD + LCM8 SLP (120 mg/kg BW) (d) HFD-fed 2% wine grape seed flour (GSF) (e) HFD + EPS (42 mg/kg BW) + SLP (20 mg/kg BW) + GSF (0.5%) (all), 6 weeks	↓Body weight gain: SLP (20%) and all (23%) ↓Adipose tissue weight: SLP (22%) and all (24%). ↓Plasma TG EPS (16%), SLP (31%), 2% GSF (18%), and all (34%) EPS: ↓LDL-C (34%), ↓TC/HDL ratio (18%), and ↑HDL-C (10%) ↓ Area under the curve (AUC) for insulin response: SLP (22%), 2% GSF (14%), and all (23%) ↓Glucose response (AUC): all (14%) Acute-phase response: ↓TRDN, ↓LBP, Differentiation of adipocyte: ↓KLF8, Adipogenesis: ↓ADAM23, ↓BMP3, ↓POSTN, Autophagy: ↓CLEC4A3, ↓PLD4, ↑GSDMC, ↑HK2, Immune response: ↓S100A8, ↓DOCK8, ↓EAR10, ↓MPEG1, ↓UBD, ↓AKAP13, Lysosomal program: ↓LIPA, Inflammatory response: ↓PTAFR, ↓FGF13, ↓OXTR, ↓KNG1, ↓SERPINA3M, Lipid metabolism: ↓NCEH1, Anti-inflammation: ↑USP2, angiogenesis: ↓SERPINF1, ↓ANGPTL4, ↑SCFA-producing bacteria, ↓Obesogenic bacteria	Seo et al. [83]
Biotransformation products
Lentilactobacillus kefiri DH5 (LKDH5) from Kefir	CPB (postbiotic) from whey (WHE) and citrus pomace extract (CPX)	C57BL/6J	(a) Control group (b) HFD + whey group (WHE) (c) HFD + LKDH5 group (108 CFU/kg BW; LAB) (d) HFD + citrus pomace extract group (10 mL/kg BW; CPX) HFD + postbiotics group (10 mL/kg BW; CPB)	↑Hesperetin, CPB group: ↓adipose tissue weight/body weight ratio, ↓TG Adipose tissue: ↑UCP-1, ↑PGC-1α ↑Anaerovorax odorimutans ↓Olsenella profusa	Youn et al. [85]
Cell-free extract
Lactobacillus paracasei	CFE	Wistar albino male rats	(a) Control basal diet (b) HFD group (c) ATOR group: HFD+ ATOR (10 mg/kg) (d) Treatment: HFD+ CFE-1 (100 mg/kg) (e) HFD+ CFE-2 (200 mg/kg), 9 weeks	↓Body weight gain, ↓serum lipid level CFE-1 (29%), and CFE-2 (34%), ↓TG level CFE-1 (32%), and CFE-2 (45%), ↓serum cholesterol CFE-1 (32%), CFE-2 (39%), ↓LDL-C CFE-1 (38%), CFE-2 (50%), ↑HDL-C CFE-1 (20%), CFE-2 (30%) ↓MDA, ↑SOD, ↑CAT, and ↑GSH-px.	Osman et al. [87]
Bifidobacterium longum DS0956 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus DS0508 28 = Bifidobacterium longum DS0950;13 = Bifidobacterium bifidum DS0908; 30 = B. longum DS0956; 51 = Lactobacillus rhamnosus DS0508	CFE	3T3-L1 preadipocytes	1, 5, or 10 μL per 1 mL	Brown-adipocyte markers: ↑PGC-1α, ↑UCP-1, and ↑PRDM16, beige-cell genes: ↑CD137, ↑FGF21, ↑P2RX5, and ↑Tbx1, white markers: ↑ap2, ↑PPARγ. Lipolysis factor: ↑HSL, ↑ATGL Activated PKA pathway ↑p-CREB, ↑p-HSL Reversed downregulated expressions of UCP-1, PGC-1α, and PPARγ	Hossain et al. [88]
BSs = 30 = B. longum DS0956; 51 = Lactobacillus rhamnosus DS0508	CFE	C57BL/6N mice (n = 56)	(a) Control: ND + saline (b) model control: HFD + saline (c) HFD + MRS broth (150 μL) (d) HFD + BS30 (150 μL) (e) HFD +BS51 (150 μL) (f) HFD+ BS30(10⁹ CFU/kg BW) (g) HFD+BS51(10⁹ CFU/kg BW), 12 weeks	↓Body weight: BS groups, ↑UCP-1, PGC-1α, PRDM16 (BS 30), ↑HSL, ↑PLIN1, ↑aP2. (BS 30) M1 polarisation marker: ↓IL-1β, ↓TNF-α (BS 30) M2 polarisation marker: ↑ARG1, ↑CD206 (BS 30)
B. bifidum DS0908, B. longum DS0950	CFE	Male C57BL/6 mice (n = 56)	(a) Group1: NFD (b) Group2: HFD (c) Group3: HFD + culture supernatants of DS0908 (150 mL/model) (d) Group 4: HFD + culture supernatants of DS0950 (150 mL/model) (e) Group 5: HFD + DS0908 bacterial pellet (1 × 10⁹ cells/kg) (f) Group 6: HFD + DS0950 bacterial pellet (1 × 10⁹ cells/kg) (g) Group 7: HFD + Rosiglitazone (10 mg/kg), 8 weeks	↓weight gain ↓fat accumulation, improved insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism. Lipid profile, Culture supernatant: ↓TG Both pellet and supernantant: ↓LDL, ↓cholesterol, ↑HDL	Rahman et al. [89]
		C3H10T1/2 MSCs	5 μL per 1 mL	↑UCP-1, ↑PPARγ, ↑PGC-1α Beige adipocyte-specific markers: ↑P2RX5, ↑FGF21, Brown adipocyte-specific marker: ↑Cox2 ↑p-PKA,↑p-p38 MAPK, ↓AMP, ↓CREB S133
EVs
Akkermansia muciniphila	Evs	Male C57BL/6 mice	First group: (a) HFD + PBS (control, 200 mL) (b) HFD + A. muciniphila alive 10⁹ CFU/200 μL, (c) HFD + eVs (10 μg protein/200 μL), 5 weeks Second group: (d) ND + PBS (control, 200 mL) (e) ND + A. muciniphila alive 10⁹ CFU/200 μL, (f) ND + eVs (10 μg protein/200 μL), 5 weeks	Both treatments: low level of body weight gain and substantial reduction in food intake in HFD mice ↓Adipocyte size in both treatments but more noticeable in eVs. eVs group: ↓TC, ↑PPARα, ↑PPARγ, ↓TGF-β Alleviated inflammation: ↓TLR-4, ↓TNF-α, ↓IL-6. Improved barrier function: ↑CLDN-1, ↑ZO-1, ↑OCLDN, and ↓CLDN-2. Both treatments influenced body weight in the ND group.	Ashrafian et al. [96]
Akkermansia muciniphila	Evs	Caco-2	10 μg of EV, 24 h	EV: ↑ZO-1, ↑OCLDN, and ↑CLDN-1
Akkermansia muciniphila Live and pasteurised (P)	eVs	Male C57BL/6 mice	(a) Control: ND + PBS 200 μL (b) Control: HFD + PBS 200 μL (c) Treatment: HFD + 10⁹ CFU/200 μL A. muciniphila (Live) (d) HFD + 10⁹ CFU/200 μL A. muciniphila (P) (e) HFD + 10 μg protein/200 μL eVs, 5 weeks	↓Food intake in pasteurised bacterium and its eVs EV: ↓adipocyte size and showed normal morphology ↓TG, ↓LDL, ↑HDL. ↓TNF-α, ↓IL-6, ↑IL-10 ↑ZO-1 and ↑OCLDN (highest in EV), ↑CLDN-1 (highest in P), ↓CLDN-2 (EV and P). Colonic inflammation markers: ↑TLR-2, ↑IL-10, ↓TNF-α, ↓TLR-4 (EV highest) Lipid metabolism: ↑Angptl4 (highest in EV)	Ashrafian et al. [97]
Metabolites
Commercial	Urolithin A (Uro-A), urolithin B (Uro-B)	Wistar rats (n = 24)	(a) Control group (normal diet) (b) HFD weekly (c) HFD+ Uro-A (2.5 mg/kg) (d) HFD+ Uro-B (2.5 mg/kg), 4 times/week, 4 weeks	Significant reduction in final body weight ↓Cholesterol, ↓LDL-C, ↓TG, ↑HDL-C Uro-A: ↑Bacteroidetes, ↑Proteobacteria, Restored Firmicutes Uro-B: ↑Firmicutes, ↓Proteobacteria	Abdulrahman et al. [101]
Pomegranate ellagitannin (eTs)	Uro-A	C57BL/6 mice, leptin-deficient ob/ob mice	(a) ob/ob mice normal diet, (b) C57BL/6 mice on HFD (c) UA (30 mg/kg/day) (d) Orlistat (15 mg/kg/day) (e) Vehicle (0.1% Tween 80) by gavage, daily, 6–10 weeks	UA prevented both diet-induced and genetic obesity ↓Adipocytes, ↓fat mass, ↓body weight, ↓Plasma TG ↑Energy expenditure, ↑Thermogenesis in BAT, ↑browning in WAT In liver: ↓TNF-α, ↓IL-6, ↓TG, ↓liver weight	Xia et al. [102]
SCFA	Butyrate	Male C57BL/6J mice	(a) Control group (b) HFD + Na butyrate (5% w/w), 12 weeks	↑Fatty acid oxidation, ↑thermogenic markers (PGC-1α and UCP-1) in BAT ↓adiposity, ↑mitochondrial biogenesis and function in BAT	Gao et al. [113]
SCFA	Butyrate, Acetate, and Propionate	Male C57BL/6N mice	(a) Control group (b) HFD + Na salts of butyrate (5% w/w) (c) HFD+ acetate (3.7% w/w) (d) HFD+ propionate (4.3% w/w), 4 weeks	Butyrate and propionate inhibited weight gain completely, acetate 40% suppression Butyrate and propionate reduced food intake and stimulated gut hormones	Lin et al. [114]
SCFA	Butyrate	Male APOE*3-Leiden.CETP (E3L.CETP)	(a) Control group (b) HFD + Na butyrate (5% w/w), 9 weeks	Prevented body weight gain and weight of the g-WAT, ↑Fat oxidation, ↑thermogenic marker (UCP-1) in BAT	Li et al. [115]
SCFA	Acetate	3T3-L1 cells	Na acetate (1 mM), 3 days	↑UCP-1, ↑PGC-1α, ↑PRDM16, ↑PPARα, ↑DiO2, ↑CIDEA, ↑FABP3 Beige adipocyte-selective genes: ↑TMEM26, ↑TBX1	Hanatani et al. [112]
SCFA	Acetate	Male KK-Ay mice (obese diabetic)	(a) Control group (b) Treatment group: sodium acetate (0.6%, oral supplementation), 16 weeks,	↑Thermogenic markers in BAT ↑Browning markers in WAT
SCFA	Acetate	Immortalised BAT	Acetate (10 mM) or acute treatment 6 h (10 mM)	↑PPARγ, ↑AP2, ↑PGC-1α, ↑UCP-1 ↑p-ERK1/2, ↑p-CREB, ↑GPR3	Hu et al. [116]
SCFA	Acetate	Male C57BL/6J mice	Na acetate (150 mM), 6 weeks, in drinking water	↑PGC-1α, ↑UCP-1
SCFA	Acetate	Male C57BL/6JRj mice	(a) Low-fat diet (b) HFD + SCFA (5%) (c) HFD + acetate: propionate (10:1) (d) HFD + acetate: propionate (1:2.5), 30 weeks	Acetate suppressed hepatic lipogenesis ↑Body temperature ↑Browning markers’ expression in WAT	Weitkunat et al. [117]
SCFA	Acetate, Propionate, Butyrate, and their admixture	Male C57BL/6 J mice	(a) Control group (b) HFD group (c) HFD + Na acetate (d) HFD + sodium propionate (e) HFD+ sodium butyrate (f) HFD+ admixture (3:1:1 ratio), 16 weeks	Inhibited body weight gain Biochemical parameters: ↓TG, ↓cholesterol, ↓IL-1β, ↓MCP-1, ↓IL-6 ↑GPR43 expression in the adipose tissue and decreased expression in colon ↓Leptin expression by acetate or SCFA admixture ↑Expression of adiponectin and resistin by all SCFAs or their admixture Promoted beige adipogenesis	Lu et al. [118]
Metabolite of anthocyanins	Vanillic acid	Male C57BL/6N mice	HF/high sucrose diet + vanillic acid (0.5%), 16 weeks	↑Expression of browning markers, and thermogenic markers, ↑cold tolerance, ↑mitochondriogeneis in BAT and WAT	Han et al. [119]
Linoleic acid metabolites	KetoA	Male C57BL/6N mice	HF diet + KetoA (0.;1%), 10 weeks	↑UCP-1 in BAT and WAT ↑Expression of thermogenic markers and browning markers Activation of TRPV1 and SNS	Kim et al. [120]
Bacteriocins
Bacteriocin	Plantaricin EF	Male C57BL6/J mice	(a) HFD (b) HFD+ 2 × 10⁹ cells of L. plantarum NICMB8826-R (20 μL) (LP group) (c) HFD+ 2 × 10⁹ cells of LM0419 (20 μL), 9 weeks (MU group)	Reduced food intake and weight gain. No change in gut microbiota (LP group). ↑Zonula Occludens-1 in LP group	Heeney et al. [122]
Bacteriocin	PJ4 by L. helveticus PJ4	Male C57BL/6 J mice	(a) Control group (b) HED group (c) HFD + DT24 (d) HFD + TSU4 (e) HFD + PJ4 (H + P), 50 μL/mL/animal/day, 30 days	Group: PJ4 more promising results: Significant decrease in body weight, ↓Adipocyte size, ↓TC, ↓TG, ↓LPS, ↓insulin, ↓IL-1β, ↓IL17, ↓IL-6, ↓IL-10, ↓IL14, ↓IFNγ, ↓TNFα, ↓MCP-1, ↓Adipokine and inflammasome. Modulated gut microflora: ↑Firmicutes, ↓Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria	Bai et al. [123]
Cell-free lysates
Ligilactobacillus salivarius strain 189	Heat-killed (HK LS)	Pigs (n = 48)	Control group: a corn-soybean meal (CON), a basal diet Treatment group: a basal diet supplemented with HK LS 189 (0.2%), 4 weeks	Significant reduction in final body weight and daily weight gain. Significant difference in β-diversity between two groups. ↑Lentisphaerae, ↓Prevotella, ↓Blautia, ↓Lachnospira, YS2_ unclassified, ↓Mitsuokella, ↓Anaerostipes	Ryu et al. [125]
Lactobacillus plantarum L-137	Heat-killed (HK L-137)	C57BL/6 J (n = 30–32/group)	Three groups by body weight: (a) Normal group (64% as carbohydrates, 20% as protein, and 6% of energy as fat) (b) HFD group (62% of energy as fat, 18% as protein, and 20% as carbohydrates) + HK L-137 (0.002%) (c) HFD group without treatment, 4 to 20 weeks	↓Weight gain Plasma: ↓cholesterol, ↓glucose, ↓AST, ↓ALT level ↓LBP (a marker of endotoxaemia) plasma levels In eWAT epididymal adipose tissue: ↓CD11c, ↓IL-1β, ↓F4/80, ↓TNF-α, ↓MCP-1	Yoshitake et al. [127]
Bifidobacterium longum BR-108	Heat treated (IBL)	Male C57BL/6J mice	(a) Normal diet (b) HFD (c) HFD + IBL, 200 mg/kg BW, (d) HFD+ IBL, 400 mg/kg BW, 4 weeks	Reduced both weight gain and epididymal body fat mass, ↓TC, ↓cholesterol, ↓glucose, ↓LPS, ↓hepatic TG	Kikuchi et al. [128]
Bifidobacterium longum BR-108	Heat treated (IBL)	Male Tsumura Suzuki obese diabetes (TSOD) mice, genetically obese mouse	(a) Control: TSOD group (b) Control: Tsumura Suzuki non-obese (TSNO) group (c) TSOD + IBL (50 mg/kg) (d) TSOD + IBL (100 mg/kg) (e) TSOD + IBL (150 mg/kg), 30 days	Reduced the body weight gain 100 (6.5 g) and 150 mg/kg (7.2 g) Reduced adipose tissue buildup ↓blood glucose levels, ↓TC, ↓cholesterol, ↓FFA	Othman and Sakamoto, [129]
Kefir-derived lactic acid bacteria (LAB) + prebiotic LAB: Leuconostoc mesenteroides 4 (LMDH4), Lactobacillus kefiri DH5 (LKDH5)	Heat-killed HLAB	Male C57BL/6J	(a) Control group (HF and high-fructose diet (HFFrD) + microcrystalline cellulose 5% (b) HFFrD + GSF (2.5%) (c) HFFrD + HLAB (d) HFFrD+ GSF + HLAB (GSF+HLAB) 10 mL/kg BW, 8 weeks	Reduced body weight gain and adipose tissue weight gain ↓Haptoglobin (HP) ↓WFDC21 ↓FABP4 ↓FAS	Seo et al. [130]
Lactobacillus plantarum K8	LAB-P	3T3-L1 preadipocytes	(a) Control (b) LAB-P (12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 μg/mL), 2, 4, and 6 days	Suppressed lipid accumulation 50 (12%), 100 (42%), and 200 (58%) μg/mL. Reduced fat droplets ↓PPARγ, ↓C/EBPα, ↓FABP4 ↓p-JAK2, ↓p-STAT3 and ↓p-STAT5, ↑p-AMPKα	Kim H. et al. [131]
Lactiplantibacillus plantarum K8	LAB-P	Male C57BL/6J mice	(a) Normal group (b) Control (HFD group) (c) HFD + LAB-P (50 mg/kg BW/day) (d) HFD + LAB-P (100 mg/kg BW/day), 14 days	Reductions in weight gain Reduced HFD-induced hypertrophy: eWAT (36%), mWAT (20%), and iWAT (40%) ↓Hepatic fat accumulation, ↑p-AMPKα. Regulation of macrophages (adipose tissues): ↑CD206, ↓CD11c. ↓IL-1β, ↓IL-6, ↓NF-κB	Lim et al. [132]
LactiplantibacillusPlantarum (LP) K8	Heat-treated LPK8 (K8HK)	Male C57BL/6 mice	(a) HFD, 10 weeks (b) Live and heat-killed 10⁹ CFU/mL 2 weeks before start of HFD, 12 weeks	↓TG in both groups (live and heat-killed) ↓PPARγ, ↓C/EBPα, ↓FABP4	Jang et al. [133]
		3T3-L1 cells	Live and heat-killed 10⁹ CFU/mL	No cytotoxicity with heat-killed ↓TG, ↓PPARγ, ↓C/EBPα, ↓FABP4, ↓ACC, ↓FAS, ↓SCD1, ↑SOCS-1, ↓p-JAK2, ↓p-STAT3 compared to control
Lactobacillus brevis KB290	Heat-killed KB290 (KB)	Male C57BL/6J mice	(a) NFD group (b) HFD group (c) HFD + KB, 2% (w/w), 8 weeks	↓Weights of epididymal and renal adipose tissue, ↓area of epididymal adipocytes ↑Adiponectin, ↑β3-adrenergic receptor In epididymal adipose tissue serum ↑FAA Altered microbiota composition	Watanabe et al. [134]

HFD, high-fat diet; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; LBP, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein; CD11c, cluster of differentiation 11c; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; MDP, muramyl dipeptide; NOD2, nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain-containing protein 2; IRF4, interferon regulatory factor 4; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; GTT, glucose tolerance test; CCL2, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2; CXCL10, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10; IL-6, interleukin 6; IL-10, interleukin 10; IFNγ, interferon gamma; CD4, cluster of differentiation 4; CD8, cluster of differentiation 8; NLRP3, NLR family pyrin domain containing 3; NOS2, nitric oxide synthase-2; SLP, surface layer protein; TG, triglyceride; TC, total cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; KLF8, Krüppel-like factor 8; TRDN, triadin; ADAM23, ADAM metallopeptidase domain 23; MAP1a, microtubule-associated protein 1A; Atp6v0d2, ATPase H+ transporting V0 subunit D2; ADAM8, a disintegrin and metallopeptidase domain 8; DOCK8, dedicator of cytokinesis 8; SLAMF7, SLAM family member 7 (the surface antigen CD319); DCSTAMP, dendrocyte expressed seven transmembrane protein; MARC1, mitochondrial amidoxime reducing component 1; UBD, ubiquitin D; TREML4, triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells like 4; EAR12, eosinophil-associated, ribonuclease A family, member 12; HORMAD2, HORMA domain containing 2; NCAN, neurocan; Gpr50, G-protein-coupled receptor; LIPF, lipase, gastric; OXTR, oxytocin receptor; TREM2, triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2; RGS1, regulator of G-protein signalling; Tm4sf19, transmembrane 4Lsix family member 19; Sfrp5, secreted frizzled-related sequence protein 5; SH2B2, SH2B adaptor protein 2Acsm3; MOGAT1, monoacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1; FCNA, ficolin A; EBF 2, early B cell factor 2; GPX3, glutathione peroxidase 3; KLHL2, Kelch-like 2; CCR8, chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 8; CES1f/2c, carboxylesterase 1F/2c; C2, complement component 2 (within H-2S); LAB, lactic acid bacteria; FABP4, fatty acid–binding protein 4; PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ; BCL-2, B-cell lymphoma-2; LTAs, lipoteichoic acids; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor-1; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; Uro-A, urolithin A; Uro-B, urolithin B; UCP-1, uncoupling protein 1; PGC-1α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; C/EBPα, CCAAT enhancer binding protein α; FAS, fatty acid synthase; LPL, lipoprotein lipase; GPDH, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; EPS, exopolysaccharide; p-ACC, phosphorylated acetyl-CoA carboxylase; p-AMPKα, phosphorylated-AMP-activated protein kinase alpha; SREBP-1c, sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1; AKT, protein kinase B; Angptl4, angiopoietin-like 4; SCFAs, short-chain fatty acids; ATOR, anti-dyslipidemia agent replacing atorvastatin; CFE, cell-free extract; MDA, malondialdehyde; SOD, superoxide dismutase; CAT, catalase; GSH-px, glutathione peroxidase; PRDM16, PR domain containing 16; FGF21, fibroblast growth factor 21; P2RX5, purinergic receptor P2X 5; TBX1, T-box transcription factor 1; aP2, adipocyte protein 2; HSL, hormone-sensitive lipase; ATGL, adipose triglyceride lipase; PKA, protein kinase A; p-CREB phosphorylated cAMP-responsive element binding protein; p-HSL, phosphorylated HSL; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; MRS, De Man, Rogosa and Sharpe; PLIN1, perilipin 1; ARG1, arginase 1; CD206, cluster of differentiation 206; EVs, extracellular vesicles; PBS, phosphate buffered saline; PPARα, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha; TGF-β, transforming growth factor beta; TLR-4/-2, toll-like receptor -4/-2; ZO-1, zonula occludens-1; OCLDN, occludin; CLDN-1/-2, claudin -1/-2; BAT, brown adipose tissue; WAT, white adipose tissue; TRPV1, transient receptor potential vanilloid 1; SNS, sympathetic nervous system; DiO2, iodothyronine deiodinase 2; CIDEA, cell death-inducing DNA fragmentation factor-α like effector A; FABP3, fatty acid binding protein 3; TMEM26, transmembrane protein 26; p-ERK1/2, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2; GPR43, G-protein-coupled receptor 43; FFA, free fatty acids; WFDC, whey-acidic protein four-disulfide core domain; p-JAK2, phosphorylated Janus kinase 2; p-STAT3/5, phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription factor 3/5; eWAT, epididymal white adipose tissue; mWAT, mesenteric WAT; iWAT, inguinal WAT; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; SCD1, stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1; SOCS-1, suppressor of cytokine signalling-1. ↓ = Decrease, ↑ = Increase.