Table 2.

Effects of postbiotics and paraprobiotics in obese and overweight patients.

Source	Postbiotic/Paraprobiotic	Subjects Type and Count (n)	Design/Duration	Format/Dose	Outcomes	Country/Reference
SCFA	Propionate	Overweight adults, 60	Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel design	Inulin-propionate ester (10 g/day) or inulin-control group (10 g/day), 24 weeks	↓weight gain, ↓intrahepatocellular lipid content, ↓intra-abdominal adipose tissue distribution, Inhibited decline in insulin sensitivity ↑PYY, ↑GLP-1	UK, Chambers et al. [135]
SCFA	Acetate	Overweight/obese men, 10	Randomised, double-blind, crossover trial	Distal and proximal colonic sodium acetate infusions (one each) colonic acetate (100 or 180 mmol/L dissolved in saline 120 mL) Placebo: 120 mL, 3 days	Distal colonic acetate: ↑Fasting fat oxidation. ↑PYY, ↑fasting circulating acetate, ↑postprandial glucose, ↑insulin concentrations, ↓TNF-α Proximal colonic acetate: no significant difference	Netherlands, van der Beek et al. [136]
SCFA	Acetate, butyrate, propionate	Overweight/obese men, 13	Randomised, double-blind, crossover study	HA: Na acetate (24 mmol 60%), Na propionate (8 mmol, 20%), Na butyrate (8 mmol, 20%). HP: Na acetate (18 mmol, 45%), Na propionate (14 mmol, 35%), Na butyrate (8 mmol, 20%). HB: Na acetate (18 mmol 45%), Na butyrate (14 mmol, 35%), Na propionate (8 mmol, 20%), all in 200 mL water. Placebo: 40 mmol sodium chloride in 200 mL water, 4 days	All treatments: ↑fasting fat oxidation. ↑PYY (fasting and postprandial plasma) ↓lipolysis HA and HP: ↑resting energy expenditure	Netherlands, Canfora et al. [137]
Pediococcus pentosaceus LP28 from longan fruit	Heat-killed LP28	Overweight, 62: heat-killed LP28: n = 21, placebo: n = 20, LP28 (living): n = 21	Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 12 weeks	LP28 (living) group: 10 mL spoon (1011 cells) Heat-killed LP28: 7.5 mL (1011 cells) Placebo: 7.5 mL	Heat-killed LP28: ↓body fat mass, ↓BMI, ↓waist circumference, ↓body fat percentages	Japan, Higashikawa et al. [139]
Lactobacillus amylovorus CP1563 from human fecal samples	Fragmented CP1563	Overweight and mildly obese, 200 Test: n = 100, placebo: n = 100	Double-blinded, placebo-controlled, randomised clinical trial (RCT), 12 weeks	Beverages with fragmented CP1563: 200 mg in a 500 mL bottle per patient per day	↓Body fat percentage, ↓whole body fat, ↓visceral fat, ↓TG, ↓TC, ↓LDL-C, ↓diastolic blood pressure	Japan, Nakamura et al. [140]
Lactobacillus amylovorus CP1563	Fragmented CP1563 with 10-HOA	Healthy subjects, 109 Test: n = 100, placebo: n = 100	Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel study, 12 weeks	Beverages with fragmented CP1563: 200 mg (1.44 mg of 10-HOA) in a 500 mL bottle per patient per day	↓Abdominal fat, ↓total fat, ↓visceral fat, ↓subcutaneous fat ↑genera Roseburia and Lachnospiraceae	Japan, Sugawara et al. [141]

Abbreviations: SCFA, short-chain fatty acid; PYY, peptide YY; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-alpha; BMI, body mass index; TG, triglycerides; TC, total cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. ↓ = Decrease, ↑ = Increase.