Skip to main content
. 2023 Mar 30;10:1030343. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1030343

Table 1.

Studies characteristics of pregnant and lactating women in Indonesia and Malaysia.

References, country Study design Subject characteristics (age of pregnancy/breastfeeding status/living area/subjects) Dietary assessment method; sources of nutrient Nutrient intake identified Intake (%RDA, %RNI, %EAR)
Aji et al. (25), Indonesia (West Sumatera) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; <13 weeks; urban and rural; 203 subjects FFQ; foods only Vitamin D 7.9 mcg (52.8, 79.2)
Aji et al. (26), Indonesia (West Sumatera) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; <13 weeks; urban and rural; 232 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods and supplement Vitamin D 5.3 mcg (35.5, 53.2)
Aji et al. (12), Indonesia (West Sumatera) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; above 28 weeks; coastal and mountainous area; 203 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods and supplement Energy 2,444 kcal (95.8, –)
Carbohydrate 267 g (66.7, –)
Protein 106.3 g (118.1, –)
Fat 109.6 g (162.8, –)
Calcium 785 mg (88–92, 115–119)
Vitamin D 7.9 mcg (52.8, 79.2)
Angkasa et al. (27), Indonesia (Jakarta) Longitudinal study Pregnant women; above 32 weeks; urban area; 315 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods only Energy 1,846 kcal (76.7, –)
Fat 63.4 g (94.2, –)
Omega-3 1.3 g (96.4, –)
ALA 1.1 g (75.7, –)
DHA 0.17 g (85, –)a
EPA 0.12 g (120, –)b
Angkasa et al. (28), Indonesia (Jakarta) Cross-sectional (validation study) Pregnant women; above 32 weeks; urban area; 100 subjects FFQ; foods only Energy 2,025 kcal (79.4, –)
Fat 64.2 g (95.4, –)
Total omega-3 1.3 g (96.4, –)
Omega-6 1.3 g (9.6, –)
EPA 0.14 g (140, –)
ALA 1.1 g (75.7)
DHA 0.17 g (85, –)
Basir et al. (29, 30), Malaysia (Pahang) Longitudinal study Exclusive breastfeeding: a term singleton babies; urban area; 32 subjects 3 days dietary recall; foods and supplement Energy 1,479–2,022 kcal (61.6– 84.3, –)
Protein 58.3–72 g (80.9–100, –)
Carbohydrate 188.8–272 g (48.4–69.7, –)
Fat 33.4–56.9 g (50.6–86.2, –)
Saturated Fat 2.9–12.4 g (11–47.1, –)
Bukhary et al. (31), Malaysia (Petaling) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; first trimester; urban area; 396 subjects FFQ; foods and supplement Vitamin D 5.1 mcg (33.7, 51)
Daniels et al. (14), Indonesia (Sumedang) Cross sectional Exclusive breastfeeding; rural area; 110 subjects 12-h daytime weighed food intakes + 12-h maternal recall; foods only Energy 2,211 kcal (85.7, –)
Calcium 613 g (51, 61)
Cobalamin 2.5 mcg (50, 60)
Iron 18.3 mg (101.6, 122)
Niacin 12.8 mg (75.3, 97.9)
Potassium 1.1 g (21.5, 39.2)
Riboflavin 1.7 mg (106.3, 127.5)
Thiamin 1.4 mg (93.3, 112)
Vitamin A 501 mg RE (52.7, 73.8)
Pyridoxine 1.3 mg (68.4, 82.1)
Zinc 12.8 mg (98.4, 118.2)
Wijaya-Erhardt et al. (32), Indonesia (Central Java) Randomized intervention trial Pregnant women; 12–20 weeks; rural area; 108 subjects (intervention), 114 subjects (control) Single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Energy 1,166–1,246 kcal (45.7–62.7, –)
Protein 33.3–36.6 g (47.5–52.2, –)
Fat 30.6–31.7 g (45.4–47.1, –)
Iron 6.82–7.65 mg (25.−51, 30.3–61.2)
Vitamin C 47.7–50.3 mg (56.1–59.2, 67.3–71.0)
Fikawati et al. (33), Indonesia Cross-sectional Vegetarian and non-vegetarian lactating women; a term singleton delivery; urban area; 33 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods only Energy Vegetarian: 2,361 kcal (89.1, –), non-vegetarian: 1,855 kcal (70, –)
Fikawati and Syafiq (34, 35), Indonesia (Depok) Longitudinal study Exclusive and non-exclusive breastfeeding; urban area; 44 subjects Single 24-h recall; foods only Energy Exclusive breastfeeding: 1,482 kcal (55.9, –), non-exclusive breastfeeding: 1,887 kcal (71.2, –)
Gibson et al. (36), Indonesia (Bandung and Sumedang) Longitudinal study Lactating women; urban and rural area; 212 subjects Food record; foods and supplement Calcium 471–497 mg (39–41, 47–50)
Iron 12–12.1 mg (65.5–67, 78.6–81.3)
Niacin 10.5–10.9 mg (61.8–64.1, 80.3–83.4)
Potassium 0.9–1 g (17.6–19.6, 32–35.7)
Riboflavin 1.2 mg (75, 90)
Thiamin 1–1.1 mg (66.7–73.3, 80–88)
Vitamin A 387–398 mcg RE (40.7–41.9, 57–58.7)
Pyridoxine 1.1–1.3 mg (57.9–68.4, 69.5–82.1)
Cobalamin 2.1–2.3 mg (42–46,50.4–55.2)
Zinc 9.3–9.5 mg (71.5–73, 85.8–87.6)
Sawal Hamid et al. (37), Malaysia (Selangor) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; above 6 weeks; urban area; 78 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods and supplement Energy 2,310 kcal (109, –)
Fiber 13 g (43.3, –)
Vitamin A 1,189 mcg RE (148.6, 208.1)
Vitamin C 125 mg (156.3, 187.5)
Thiamine 20.2 mg (1,443, 1,731.4)
Riboflavin 1.6 mg (114.3, 137.1)
Niacin 1.1 mg (6.1, 7.9)
Iron 23 mg (85.1, 102.2)
Calcium 689 mg (69, 83)
Phosphorus 1,201 mg (172, 207)
Sodium 2,813 mg (187.5, 187.5)
Potassium 2.5 g (53.1, 53.1)
Hartini et al. (38), Indonesia (Purworejo) Longitudinal study Pregnant women; rural area; all trimester; 450 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Protein 41–52 g (58.6–74.3, –)
Fat 37–51 g (55–75.8, –)
Carbohydrate 273–357 g (68.3–89.3, –)
Vitamin A 249.6–716.7 mcg RE (27.7–134.3, 38.8–111.5)
Calcium 276–443 mg (23–96.6, 27.6–125.4)
Iron 12–17 mg (44.44–113.3, 53.33–136)
Hartriyanti et al. (35), Indonesia Review Pregnant women in Indonesia (West Java, Yogyakarta, Central Java, East Java, Papua): 7 studies Semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire; 24-h dietary recall (single and multiple) Energy 1,591–2,239 kcal (65–91.4, –)
Protein 42.5–58.8 g (60.7–84, –)
Fat 46.1 g (68.5, –)
Carbohydrate 248.5 g (62.1, –)
Vitamin A 992.5 mcg (110.3, 154.4)
Vitamin C 68.1–145.9 mg (80.1–171.6, 96.1–205.9)
Iron 9.6–30.4 mg (35.5–112.5, 42.6–135.1)
Zinc 12.9 mg (107.5, 129)
Calcium 360–614 mg (30–51, 36–61)
Sodium 2,356 mg (157.08, 157.1)
Potassium 1,911 mg (40.6, 40.6)
Hasbullah et al. (39), Malaysia (Seremban) Cohort Pregnant women; above 10 weeks; urban area; 294 subjects FFQ; foods only Energy 1,980 kcal (90.8, –)
Carbohydrate 290 g (81.9, –)
Protein 76.3 g (97.8, –)
Fat 56 g (71.8, –)
Fiber 14.8 g (49.3, –)
Calcium 740 mg (74, 62)
Iron 16.3 mg (60.3, 72.4)
Hassan et al. (40), Malaysia (Sepang) Quasi-experimental Pregnant women; below 24 weeks of gestation; 162 subjects (intervention), 162 subjects (control) Weighed food records in 3 days (2 weekdays and 1 weekend); foods and supplement Iron 23.0–24.8 mg (85–91.8, 102–110.2)
Ilmiawati et al. (41), Indonesia (Padang) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; third trimester; urban area; 88 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Vitamin D 5.6 mcg/1,000 kcal/day
Kamaruzzaman et al. (42), Malaysia (Kuantan) Cross-sectional Exclusive breastfeeding; urban area; 70 subjects 3 days food record; foods only Protein 85.7 g (119, –)
Carbohydrate 259.1 g (66.4, –)
Fat 64.2 g (81.3, –)
Kardjati et al. (43), Indonesia (Madura) Randomized control trial (RCT) Pregnant women; 26–28 weeks of gestation; rural area; 360 subjects 3-days food weighing; foods and supplement Energy 1,500 kcal (58.8, –)
Protein 41 g (58.6, –)
Fat 18 g (26.7, –)
Retinol 443 mcg (49.2, 68.9)
Thiamin 0.8 mg (59.3, 71.1)
Riboflavin 0.4 mg (25.7, 30.9)
Iron 6.7 mg (24.8–44.7, 29.7–53.6)
Calcium 167 mg (14, 17)
Kardjati et al. (44), Indonesia (Madura) Randomized trial Pregnant women; all trimester; rural area; 4,376 subjects Weighed food records in 3 consecutive days; foods Energy 1,532–1,654 kcal (63–64.9, –)
Protein 40–43 g (45.6–65.6, –)
Khor et al. (45), Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur) Cross-sectional Lactating women; 2–16 week postpartum term singleton delivery; urban area; 20 subjects 24-h dietary recall (3 days); foods only Energy 2,271–2,436 kcal (94.6–101.5, –)
Protein 83.6–100.8 gr (117.7–141.9, –)
Fat 64.6–77.1 g (81.8–116.8, –)
Carbohydrate 338.2–368.2 g (86.7–122.7, –)
SFA 16.2–17.3 g (60.7–64.8, –)
Kneebone et al. (46), Malaysia (Penang) Cross-sectional Lactating women; all trimester; urban area; 4 subjects FFQ and single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Energy 1,243 kcal (53.1, –)
Carbohydrate 139.8 g (36.8, –)
Protein 37.3 g (51.8, –)
Fat 45.6 g (57.7, –)
Lee et al. (47), Malaysia (Selangor) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; over 37 weeks; urban area; 248 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods only Vitamin D 8.3 mcg (55.3, 83)
Loy et al. (48), Malaysia (Kelantan) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; 28–38 weeks; urban area; 121 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods only Energy 2,042 kcal (86.2, –)
Protein 83.9 g (108,–)
Carbohydrate 306.4 g (79.6, –)
Fat 54.6 g (70, –)
Fiber 7 g (23.3)
Sodium 2,737 mg (182, 182)
Potassium 1,648 mg (35.1, 35.1)
Calcium 821 mg (82, 98)
Iron 20,1 mg (74.4, 89.3)
Phosphorus 998 mg (143, 172)
Vitamin A 959 mcg (1,199, 167.8)
Vitamin C 121.2 mg (151.5, 181.8)
Thiamin 1.6 mg (114.3, 137.1)
Riboflavin 2 mg (142.9, 171.4)
Niacin 15.9 mg (88.3, 114.8)
Loy et al. (49), Malaysia (Kelantan) Validation study Pregnant women; 12–22 weeks and 28–38 weeks; urban area; 177 subjects SQ-FFQ and repeated 24-h dietary recall; foods only Energy 1,811–2,021 kcal (78.4–87.5, –)
Protein 69.9–78.9 g (90.8–101.2, –)
Carbohydrate 245.6–306.4 kcal (63.8–81.6, –)
Fiber 5.5–7 g (18.3–23.3, –)
Fat 53.9 −56.5 g (69.1–72.4, –)
Calcium 626–831 mg (63–83, 75–100)
Iron 20.3–20.8 mg (69.6–75.1, 83.5–90.2)
Niacin 12.8–15.9 mg (71.1–83.3, 92.4–114.8)
Phosphorus 967–1,103 mg (138–158, 167–190)
Potassium 1,552–1,647 mg (33–35, 33–35)
Riboflavin 1.6–2 mg (114.3–142.9, 137.1–171.4)
Sodium 2,123–2,586 mg (141.5–172.4, 141.5–172.4)
Thiamin 1.1–1.6 mg (78.6–114.3, 94.3–137.1)
Vitamin A 971.8–987.7 mcg, RE (121.5–123.5, 170.1–172.8)
Vitamin C 96.4–127.2 mg (120.5–159, 144.6–190.8)
Loy et al. (50), Malaysia (Kelantan) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; ≥28 weeks; Hospital University Sains Malaysia; 108 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods only Energy 2,031 kcal (87.9, –)
Madanijah et al. (51), Indonesia (Bogor) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; 13 and < 28 weeks; rural area; 203 subjects FFQ; foods only Energy 1,447–1,678 kcal (56.7 −65.8, –)
Protein 37–50 g (52.9–71.4, –)
Vitamin A 370–538 mcg (41.1–59.8, 57.6–83.7)
Vitamin C 13–22 mg (15.3–25.9, 18.4–31.1)
Calcium 606–869 mg (51–72, 61–87)
Iron 15.6–16.6 mg (55.6–83.3, 66.7–100)
Zinc 10–11 mg (83.3–110, 100–132.5)
Madanijah et al. (52), Indonesia (Bogor) Cross-sectional Lactating women; between 50 and 180 days after delivery; rural area; 220 subjects FFQ; foods only Energy 1,570–1,879 kcal (60.9–72.9, –)
Protein 50–61 g (62.5 −76.3, –)
Vitamin A 421–517 mcg (44.3–54.4 : 62–76.2)
Vitamin C 18–36 mg (15–30, 18–36)
Calcium 558–803 mg (47–67, 56–80)
Iron 19.6–21.3 mg (111.1–116.6, 133.3–140)
Zinc 10–13 mg (76.9–100, 92.3–120)
Mahdy et al. (53), Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur) Case-control Post-partum women; pre-eclampsia and normal pregnancy groups; urban area; 75 subjects 3 days dietary recall; foods and supplement Calcium 446–904 mg (45–90, 53–108)
Marsubrin et al. (54), Indonesia Longitudinal study Lactating women; babies were born ≥32 weeks and or birthweight < 1,500 g; 30 subjects FFQ, single 24-h recall and weekly food records; foods only Energy 1,679–1,825 kcal (67.7–73.6, –)
Carbohydrate 240.7–270.6 g (62.5–70.3, –)
Protein 57.0–64.6 g (71.3–80.8, –)
Fat 59.4–67.0 g (95.5–107.7, –)
Mohamed et al. (55), Malaysia (Kota Bharu) Cohort Pregnant women; 14–24 gestational weeks; urban area; 102 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods and calcium Calcium 514–552 mg (49, 58)
Mutalazimah et al. (56), Indonesia (Boyolali) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; second and third trimester; rural area; 164 subjects SQ-FFQ and three days dietary recall; foods only Energy 1,349 kcal (52.9, –)
Protein 48 g (68.6, –)
Carbohydrate 143.9 g (35.9, –)
Fat 44.4 g (66, –)
Nadimin et al. (57), Indonesia (Makassar) RCT Pregnant women; second trimester, rural area; 70 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods and supplement Energy 2,077–2,096 kcal (81.4–82.2, –)
Protein 68–71 g (97.1–101.4, –)
Vitamin A 1,075–1,315 mcg (119.4–146.1, 167.2–204.6)
Vitamin D 10–11 mcg (66.7–73.3, 100–110)
Vitamin E 6–6.4 mg (40–42.7, 48–51.2)
Thiamine 0.6–0.7 mg (45.7–46.4, 54.9–55.7)
Riboflavin 0.9 mg (62.9–65.7, 75.4–78.9)
Pyridoxine 1.2–1.3 mg (64.7–65.7, 77.7–78.9)
Folate 154.6–173.1 mcg (25.8–28.9, 32.2–36.1)
Cobalamin 3.2–4.4 mcg (71.8–98, 86.1–117.6)
Iron 7.1–8.7 mg (26.2–32.2, 31.5–38.6)
Zinc 6.75–8.69 mg (56.25–72.4, 67.5–86.9)
Calcium 384–385 mg (32, 38–39)
Phosphorus 949–1,032 mg (136–147, 164–178)
Nahrisah et al. (58), Indonesia (Aceh) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; 14–20 weeks; rural area; 158 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Copper 0.66 mg (66, 82.5)
Folate 117.1 mcg (19.5, 24.4)
Iron 9.84 mg (36.4–65.6, 43,7–78,7)
Vitamin A 416.4 mcg (46.3, 64.8)
Vitamin E 4.9 mg (32.7, 39.2)
Riboflavin 0.7 mg (56.2, 67.4)
Pyridoxine 0.8 mg (42.1, 50.5)
Cobalamin 2.1 mcg (46, 55.2)
Vitamin C 43.1 mg (50.7, 70.8)
Zinc 5.03 mg (41.91, 50.3)
Nahrisah et al. (59), Indonesia (Aceh) Quasi experimental Anemic pregnant women; rural area; 70 subjects FFQ; foods only Iron 3.8–6.5 mg (14.07–36.11, 16.8–43.3)
de Pee et al. (60), Indonesia (Bogor) RCT Lactating women; rural area; 104 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Energy 2,436–2,557 kcal (91.9–96.5, –)
Carbohydrate 376–431 g (90.4–103.9, –)
Carotenoids 337–351 RE
Fat 63–73 g (93.8–108.6, –)
Iron 13 mg (72.2, 86.6)
Protein 63–65 g (78.8–81.3, –)
Retinol 16–19 RE
Persson et al. (61), Indonesia (Purworejo) Cohort Pregnant women; rural area; 122 subjects (first trimester), 406 subjects (second trimester), 356 subjects (third trimester) Multiple 24-h dietary recall (3–6 non-consecutive days); foods only Energy 1,608–1,968 kcal (66.2–77.2, –)
Protein 39.6–48.9 g (64.9 −69.9, –)
Fat 38.6–45.4 g (57.4–67.5, –)
Carbohydrate 282–347 g (73.2–86.8, –)
Vitamin A 2.3–2.4 mcg (0.3, 0.4)
Vitamin C 1.6–1.8 mg (1.9–2.1, 2.3–2.5)
Thiamine 0.7–0.8 mg (47.1–58.6, 56.6–70.3)
Iron 1.7–1.8 mg (2–2.1, 2.3–2.5)
Calcium 316–380 mg (26.3–31.6, 31.6–38)
Persson et al. (62), Indonesia (Purworejo) Cohort Pregnant women; rural area; 154 subjects (first trimester), 450 subjects (second trimester); 420 subjects (third trimester) Multiple 24-h dietary recalls (3-6 non-consecutive days); foods and supplement Vitamin A 363–430 mcg (40.3–47.8, 56.5–66.9)
Rahmannia et al. (63), Indonesia (Sumedang) Cross-sectional Lactating women; 2–5 months postpartum; rural area; 121 subjects 12-h daytime weighed food intakes + 12-h maternal recall; foods only Energy 2,165 kcal (85.7, –)
Protein 70.7 g (88.4, –)
Fat 57.8 g (86, –)
Carbohydrate 338 g (85.2, –)
Calcium 613 mg (51, 61.3)
Folate 618 mcg (82.4, 103)
Iron 17.9 mg (101.6, 122)
Niacin 12.8 mg (75.3, 97.9)
Riboflavin 1.7 mg (106.3, 127.5)
Thiamin 1.4 mg (93.3, 112)
Vitamin A 501 mcg RE (52.7, 73.8)
Cobalamin 2.5 mcg (50, 60)
Pyridoxine 1.3 mg (68.4, 82.1)
Vitamin C 38 mg (31.7, 38)
Zinc 12.8 mg (98.4, 118.1)
Savitri et al. (64), Indonesia (Jakarta) Cohort Pregnant women; exposed to fasting during Ramadan; urban area; 96 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Energy 1,527–1,986 kcal (60–77.9, –)
Protein 52.5–68.7 g (75–98, –)
Fat 42–69.2 g (622.4–102.8, –)
Carbohydrate 196.3–281.7 g (49.1–70.4, –)
Fiber 9–10.4 g (25–28.8, –)
Vitamin A 1,050–2,442 mg (116.6–271.4, 163.3–379.9)
Carotene 0 mg (0, 0)
Vitamin E 0–0.5 mg (0–3.33, 0–4)
Vitamin C 58.7–78.7 mg (69.1–92.6, 82.9–111.1)
Thiamine 0.5–0.9 mg (35.7–64.3, 42.9–77.1)
Riboflavin 0.1–1.2 mg (10–85.7, 12–102.9)
Pyridoxine 1.2–1.7 mg (63.2–89.5, 75.8–107.4)
Folate 0–2.8 mcg (0–0.7, 0–0.8)
Iron 8–14.3 mg (29.6–52.9, 35.5–63.5)
Zinc 6.3–9.7 mg (52.5–97, 63–116.5)
Calcium 379–621 mg (32–52, 38–62)
Phosphorus 647–1,152 mg (92–165, 111–199)
Sodium 285.9–632.3 mg (19.06–42.1, 19.06–42.1)
Potassium 1,583–1,978 mg (33.6–42, 33.6–42)
Magnesium 222.6–282.7 mg (65.4–83.1, 76.7–97.4)
Sulchan et al. (65), Indonesia (Karesidenan Pati, Semarang, Surakarta, Kedu, Banyumas and Pekalongan) Cross-sectional Lactating women; children < 36 months old; rural area; 720 subjects Single 24-h recall; foods only Vitamin A 319 RE (33.6, 47)
Suprapto et al. (66), Indonesia (Karanganyar) RCT Pregnant women; 13–28 weeks; rural area; 84 subjects; foods and supplement Single 24-h dietary recall; foods and supplement Energy 1,468–2,045 kcal (57.6–80.2, –)
Protein 48.1–66 g (68.7–94.3, –)
Iron 10.1–20.8 mg (37.40–115.5, 44.89–138.6)
Vitamin A 505.5–15,856 mcg (56.2–176.2, 78.6–246.7)
Riboflavin 0.5–1.6 mg (38.5–123.1, 46.2–147.7)
Vitamin C 120.2–263.4 mg (141.1–309.9, 169.7–371.9)
Sutrisna et al. (67), Indonesia Cross-sectional (secondary data) Pregnant women; estimate from Riskesdas and SKMI data; national level; 578 subjects Single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Iodine 16.2–71.5 μg (7.3–32.5, 10.1–44.6)
Tan et al. (68), Malaysia (Kajang and Seng) Cross-sectional Lactating women; infant older than 2 weeks; urban area; 20 subjects Single 24-h recall; foods only Calcium 940 mg (94, 113)
Phosphorus 664 mg (95, 114)
Potassium 7.2 g (138.5, 153.1)
Sodium 1,330 mg (88.7, 88.7)
Magnesium 382 mg (123.2, 131.7)
Iron 26 mg (123.8, 148.5)
Zinc 8.5 mg (89.5, 107.3)
Copper 800 μg (61.5, 80)
Manganese 1.9 mg (73.1, 73 AI)*
Selenium 26 μg (76.5, 91.7)
Iodine 140 μg (70, 98)
Chromium 32 μg (71.1, 45 AI)*
Molybdenum 35 μg (70, 36)
Tan et al. (69), Malaysia (Selangor and Kuala Lumpur) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; >28 weeks; urban area; 429 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods only Energy 1,935 kcal (83.7, –)
Carbohydrate 375.4 g (73.6, –)
Protein 80.7 g (103, –)
Fat 78 g (72.3, –)
Iron 243 mg (900, 1,080)
Folate 1,942 mcg (323.7, 420.7)
Vitamin C 379.6 mg (474.5, 569.4)
Calcium 1,014 mg (101, 122)
Wibowo et al. (70), Indonesia (Jakarta) RCT Pregnant women; 8–12 weeks of gestation; urban area; 46 subjects (intervention), 58 subjects (control) Single 24-h dietary recall; foods only Energy 1,339–1,352 kcal (52.5–53, –)
Protein 47–49.8 g (77–81.6, –)
Vitamin A 245–819 mcg (27.2–91, 38.1–127.4)
Vitamin D 0–0.5 mcg (0–3.3, 0–5)
Zinc 2.55–15.7 mg (21.25–28, 25.5–33.7)
Iron 19–22.1 mg (35,55–53,33, 42.67–64)
Folate 225–251 mcg (37.5–41.8, 46.9–42.3)
Cobalamin 1–1.2 mcg (22.2–26.7, 26.7–32)
Vitamin C 30.2–42.2 mg (35.5–49.6, 42.6–59.6)
Woon et al. (71), Malaysia (Selangor and Kuala Lumpur) Cohort Pregnant women; >28 weeks; urban area; 535 subjects 1-month FFQ; foods only Vitamin D 10.2 mcg (68, 102)
Yeop et al. (72), Malaysia (Petaling) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; first trimester; urban area; 396 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods only Calcium 632 mg (63.2, 75.84)
Yong et al. (73), Malaysia (Negeri Sembilan) Cross-sectional Pregnant women; 13–26 weeks; 314 subjects SQ-FFQ; foods and supplement Energy 1,376 kcal (64.9, –)
Calcium 800 mg (80, 96)
Vitamin D 11.5 mcg (76.7, 115)
Yusrawati et al. (74), Indonesia (Padang) Case-control Pregnant women; >20 weeks; preeclampsia case group (70 subjects); normotensive control group (70 subjects) FFQ; foods only Energy 1,172–1,269 kcal (45.9–49.8, –)
Protein 42.4–54.9 g (60.6–78.4, –)
Carbohydrate 163.5–219.5 g (54.9–62.1, –)
Fat 26.8–32.4 g (39.8–48.1)
Calcium 936 mg (780, 936)
Phosphorus 714.6 mg (102, 123)
Iron 11.1 mg (41.1, 49.3)
Zinc 5.5 mg (45.8, 55)
Natrium 533.3 (35.6, 35.3)
Potassium 732 mg (15,6, 15.6)
Magnesium 210 mg (63,6, 72.4)
Vitamin A 544.9–763.9 (60.5–84.9, 85–118.8)
Folate 108.6–163.5 mcg (18.1–27.3, 22.6–34.1)
Thiamin 0.7 mg (50, 60)
Riboflavin 0.9–1.1 mg (67.1–78.6, 80.6–94.3)
Niacin 4.3–5.8 mg (23.9–32.2, 28.7–38.7)
Pyridoxine 1.1–1.2 mg (57.9–63.2, 69.5–75.8)
Cobalamin 1.1–2.8 mcg (24.4–62.2, 29.3–75)
Vitamin C 43.4–68.2 mg (51.1–80.2, 61–96)
Vitamin E 1.9–3.6 mg (12.7–24, 15.2–28.8)
Zaleha et al. (75), Malaysia (Selangor) Cross-sectional (validation study) Pregnant women; first trimester; urban area; 79 subjects FFQ and 3 days dietary recall; foods only Vitamin D 2.9–3.7 mcg (19.6–24.7, 29.4–37)
a

ALA, alpha-linolenic acid;

b

DHA, docosahexaenoic acid;

cEPA, eicosapentaenoic acid;

*AI, adequate intake; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; SQ-FFQ, semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire.