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. 2023 Apr 13;13:6064. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-33350-5

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Degree of oxidation and defectiveness of GOs. Comparison of both mass and atomic O/C ratios from XPS and EA (a). Correlation between C sp² (XPS), I_D/I_G (Raman), and T_d (TGA) (b). C sp² consumption related to C sp³ and epoxy functionalities (> O/C-O) (c). Relative amounts of > O/C-O, C=O, OC=O, and C–OH. Correlation between I_D/I_G, degree of oxidation (O/C, EA), and amount of C sp³ (XPS) (e). Total residue percentage together with Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Na, Mn, Ba, Se, Ca, Cu, V, Zn, Pt, Cr, and Al trace element abundance (ICP-OES) (f). Correlation between interlayer spacing (XRD) and O/C ratio (EA) for all the samples, and their comparison with other carbonaceous materials (g).