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. 2023 Apr 13;15:101. doi: 10.1007/s40820-023-01077-7

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — a Power curves of CPP900-BMIM:Cl during discharging when connected to different external loads. The temperature difference is 20 K. Variation trend of b maximum output power and c energy density with external load. d Comparison of energy density of CPP900-BMIM:Cl with the optimal values reported in literatures. Because the test conditions for i-TE energy density are not uniform (discharge time, temperature difference, load resistance, relative humidity, etc.), we provide a rough comparison here to facilitate an understanding of the output limit and scale of i-TEs. e Charging curve of CPP900-BMIM:Cl for a 10 mF supercapacitor at a temperature difference of 20 K. f A fully charged supercapacitor with a capacity of 0.5 F can drive a small fan directly. g Connecting 4 charged supercapacitors (10 mF) in series, the recovered heat can light up red, yellow and green light-emitting diodes. h The open-circuit voltage of CPP900-BMIM:Cl under a continuous temperature difference of 20 K. i Powering a thermo-hygrometer directly by a i-TE module without supercapacitors. (Color figure online)