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. 2022 Dec 26;26(2):232–244. doi: 10.1111/ele.14144

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© 2022 The Authors. Ecology Letters published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Visual schematics of a hypothetical dataset with missing standard deviations (SDs) and five different approaches used in this study, including 3 new methods. The symbols: lnRR₂ (Equation 4), lnRR₃ (Equation 6), $v$ (Equation 5), $\tilde{v}$ (Equation 7), and $ϕ \tilde{v}$ (Equation 12). Note that, under some circumstances, we could replace Equations 4 and 6 with Equation 1 while Equation 7 can be replaced by Equation 15 (see the text for more details).