TABLE 5.
Association between macronutrients and gestational weight gain, Tanzania, 2001–2005 (N = 7025)
| Severely inadequate weight gain |
Inadequate weight gain |
Excessive weight gain |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy-adjusted RR (95% CI) | Multivariable RR (95% CI) | Energy-adjusted RR (95% CI) | Multivariable RR (95% CI) | Energy-adjusted RR (95% CI) | Multivariable RR (95% CI) | |
| Total energy intake (100 kcal/d) | 0.98∗∗ (0.96, 0.99) | 0.97∗∗∗ (0.96, 0.99) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.98, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.98, 1.02) | 1.02∗ (1.00, 1.04) |
| Percentage energy from carbohydrates | 0.99∗ (0.98, 1.00) | 0.99∗ (0.98, 1.00) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) |
| Percentage energy from protein | 1.04∗ (1.01, 1.08) | 1.06∗∗ (1.02, 1.09) | 1.02 (0.98, 1.05) | 1.03(1.00, 1.07) | 1.03 (0.99, 1.06) | 1.01 (0.97, 1.05) |
| Percentage energy from fat | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.01 (1.00, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) |
| Carbohydrates for protein | 0.97∗∗ (0.96, 0.99) | 0.98∗∗ (0.96, 0.99) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.00) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.00) | 1.00 (0.98, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.98, 1.02) |
| Carbohydrates for fat | 0.99 (0.98, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.98, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) |
| Fat for protein | 0.97∗ (0.95, 1.00) | 0.98 (0.96, 1.01) | 0.98 (0.96, 1.01) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.01) | 1.01 (0.98, 1.03) | 1.01 (0.98, 1.03) |
| Animal protein for plant protein | 1.01 (0.97, 1.05) | 1.04∗ (1.00, 1.08) | 0.99 (0.95, 1.03) | 1.02 (0.97, 1.06) | 1.03 (0.99, 1.08) | 1.01 (0.96, 1.06) |
| Saturated fat for monounsaturated fat | 0.97∗ (0.95, 1.00) | 0.98 (0.96, 1.01) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.97, 1.02) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.02) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.02) |
| Saturated fat for polyunsaturated fat | 0.97∗∗ (0.94, 0.99) | 0.98 (0.96, 1.00) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.01) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.02) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.02) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.02) |
| Monounsaturated fat for polyunsaturated fat | 0.94 (0.87, 1.01) | 0.98 (0.91, 1.06) | 0.94 (0.88, 1.02) | 0.98 (0.91, 1.06) | 1.06 (0.99, 1.15) | 1.04 (0.95, 1.13) |
| AMDR for carbohydrates | ||||||
| Below | 1.21 (0.65, 2.25) | 1.34 (0.71, 2.55) | 1.62 (0.91, 2.90) | 1.83 (1.00, 3.36) | 1.46 (0.78, 2.73) | 1.11 (0.56, 2.21) |
| Within | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Above | 0.88 (0.73, 1.06) | 0.87 (0.72, 1.05) | 0.94 (0.80, 1.14) | 0.93 (0.77, 1.13) | 0.89 (0.73, 1.09) | 0.93 (0.74, 1.17) |
| AMDR for protein | ||||||
| Below | 0.85 (0.72, 1.02) | 0.80∗ (0.67, 0.96) | 0.95 (0.79, 1.13) | 0.87 (0.73, 1.04) | 0.94 (0.77, 1.13) | 1.04 (0.84, 1.30) |
| Within | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Above | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| AMDR for fat | ||||||
| Below | 0.87 (0.67, 1.14) | 0.82 (0.63, 1.08) | 1.24 (0.96, 1.61) | 1.19 (0.91, 1.56) | 0.86 (0.64, 1.16) | 0.87 (0.63, 1.20) |
| Within | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Above | 1.07 (0.82, 1.38) | 1.14 (0.87, 1.50) | 1.16 (0.90, 1.50) | 1.22 (0.94, 1.60) | 1.17 (0.88, 1.55) | 1.10 (0.80, 1.52) |
Values are risk ratios and 95% confidence intervals from multinomial regressions adjusted for total energy intake, prepregnancy body mass index, maternal age, maternal education, maternal height, wealth quartile, alcohol use, and supplementation group: ∗P < 0.05; ∗∗ P < 0.01; ∗∗∗ P < 0.001. AMDR for protein above recommendation had too few values to produce reliable estimates.
AMDR, acceptable macronutrient distribution range.