Table 3.

Animal models of NEC- advantages and limitations.

	Mice	Rat	Pig
Advantages	High reproductive rate Genetically modifiable Commercially available tools (existing antibodies, primers) Postnatal intestinal development Ability to induce NEC at various ages	High reproductive rate Relatively larger size than mouse Easier to gavage feed than mice Neonatal rats more resilient than mice	Preterm viability Ability to evaluate perfusion/hemodynamics Can perform sequential lab work Ability to mimic identical feeding practices (formula, TPN) and clinical exposure Similar GI physiology/size to human neonates
Limitations	Difficult to gavage feed Require regular feeds for hydration and glucose regulation	Lack of transgenic lines High endotoxin/bacterial tolerance Requires c-section to avoid dam milk	Limited molecular diagnostic tools Can develop global intestinal injury
Cost	Low	Low	High
Ideal for:	Elucidating mechanisms, pathways and single gene effects driving pathogenesis	Testing safety/feasibility Temporal biomarker studies	Translational evaluation for therapeutic strategies
Models:	HF, HHF, ABT, PCD, PIA, I/R, MHK, FF	HF, HHF, I/R	HHF, ABT, I/R, FF, FF/PN

HHF, hypoxia-hypothermia-formula feeding; ABT, antibiotic exposure; PCD, Paneth cell disruption; PIA, phlebotomy-induced anemia; I/R, Ischemia/reperfusion; MHK, Maltodextrin ± hypoxia ± Klebsiella; FF, formula feeding; PN + FF, parenteral nutrition followed by formula.