Figure 1.

The transmission of glutamate. Glutamate mainly acts on glutamate receptors [AMPAR, NMDAR, kainic acid receptor (KAR), and metabolotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR)]. Commonly, glutamate receptors are involved in synaptic plasticity [long-term potentiation (LTP)/long-term depression (LTD)] and the transmission of excitatory neurotransmitters. After stroke, ischemia and hypoxia of the brain will lead to excessive activation of glutamate receptors, causing Ca²⁺ influx, and increased intracellular Ca²⁺ concentrations cause excitotoxicity and cytotoxic effects.