Table. Descriptive Statistics for Patients With Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Control Individuals and Recurrent Depression.
| Characteristic | No. (%) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lifetime MDD | Recurrent MDD | |||||
| Control (n = 51 446) | MDD (n = 6811) | P value | Control (n = 62 508) | MDD (n = 4370) | P value | |
| Age, median (IQR), y | 58 (51-64) | 56 (49-62) | <1 × 10−10 | 58 (50-63) | 56 (49-62) | <1 × 10−10 |
| Sex | ||||||
| Female | 24 535 (48) | 4447 (65) | <1 × 10−10 | 30 637 (49) | 2870 (66) | <1 × 10−10 |
| Male | 26 911 (52) | 2364 (35) | 31 871 (51) | 1500 (34) | ||
| BMI, median (IQR) | 26.62 (24.16-29.6) | 26.76 (24.09-30.16) | 1.54 × 10−4 | 26.64 (24.13-29.68) | 26.81 (24.05-30.37) | 2.49 × 10−4 |
| Fasting time, median (IQR) | 1.1 (0.69-1.39) | 1.1 (1.1-1.39) | 1.10 × 10−9 | 1.1 (0.69-1.39) | 1.1 (1.1-1.39) | 1.42 × 10−8 |
| Race and ethnicitya | ||||||
| Asianb | 918 (2) | 121 (2) | 1.97 × 10−8 | 1317 (2) | 86 (2) | 9.85 × 10−5 |
| Blackc | 694 (1) | 109 (2) | 982 (2) | 78 (2) | ||
| Chinese | 175 (0) | 10 (0) | 240 (0) | 8 (0) | ||
| Whited | 49 006 (95) | 6437 (95) | 59 065 (94) | 4108 (94) | ||
| Mixede | 222 (0) | 64 (1) | 279 (0) | 40 (1) | ||
| Otherf | 431 (1) | 70 (1) | 625 (1) | 50 (1) | ||
| Education | ||||||
| A levels, AS levels, or equivalent | 5767 (11) | 867 (13) | 1 × 10−10 | 6951 (11) | 540 (12) | 1 × 10−10 |
| CSEs or equivalent | 2591 (5) | 367 (5) | 3319 (5) | 236 (5) | ||
| College or university degree | 17 398 (34) | 2505 (37) | 20 775 (33) | 1645 (38) | ||
| NVQ or HND or HNC or equivalent | 3676 (7) | 407 (6) | 4411 (7) | 260 (6) | ||
| O levels, GCSEs, or equivalent | 10 909 (21) | 1518 (22) | 13 310 (21) | 965 (22) | ||
| Other professional qualifications | 2877 (6) | 355 (5) | 3382 (5) | 232 (5) | ||
| None | 8228 (16) | 792 (12) | 10 360 (17) | 492 (11) | ||
| Smoking status | ||||||
| Current | 3190 (6) | 581 (9) | 1 × 10−10 | 4125 (7) | 390 (9) | 1 × 10−10 |
| Previous | 17 463 (34) | 2598 (38) | 21 076 (34) | 1663 (38) | ||
| Never | 30 793 (60) | 3632 (53) | 37 307 (60) | 2317 (53) | ||
| Physical activity | ||||||
| High | 20 897 (41) | 2692 (40) | 7.86 × 10−4 | 25 052 (40) | 1721 (39) | 2.56 × 10−1 |
| Moderate | 21 548 (42) | 2801 (41) | 26 222 (42) | 1821 (42) | ||
| Low | 9001 (17) | 1318 (19) | 11 234 (18) | 828 (19) | ||
| Alcohol frequency | ||||||
| Daily or almost daily | 10 706 (21) | 1324 (19) | 1 × 10−10 | 12 666 (20) | 851 (19) | 1 × 10−10 |
| Three or four times a wk | 13 138 (26) | 1559 (23) | 15 569 (25) | 999 (23) | ||
| Once or twice a wk | 13 951 (27) | 1658 (24) | 16 871 (27) | 1031 (24) | ||
| Less than once a wk | 13 651 (27) | 2270 (33) | 17 402 (28) | 1489 (34) | ||
| Medicationsg | ||||||
| A02BC proton pump inhibitors | ||||||
| No | 47 779 (93) | 6016 (88) | 1 × 10−10 | 57 702 (92) | 3844 (88) | 1 × 10−10 |
| Yes | 3667 (7) | 795 (12) | 4806 (8) | 526 (12) | ||
| C01AA digitalis glycosides | ||||||
| No | 51 335 (100) | 6801 (100) | 3.02 × 10−1 | 62 372 (100) | 4366 (100) | 1.12 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 111 (0) | 10 (0) | 136 (0) | 4 (0) | ||
| C10 lipid-modifying agents | ||||||
| No | 41 559 (81) | 5643 (83) | 4.57 × 10−5 | 50 552 (81) | 3581 (82) | 8.46 × 10−2 |
| Yes | 9887 (19) | 1168 (17) | 11 956 (19) | 789 (18) | ||
| A10BA02 metformin | ||||||
| No | 50 213 (98) | 6624 (97) | 8.68 × 10−2 | 60 950 (98) | 4226 (97) | 1.34 × 10−3 |
| Yes | 1233 (2) | 187 (3) | 1558 (2) | 144 (3) | ||
| A10.excl.A10BA02 antidiabetes excluding metformin | ||||||
| No | 51 045 (99) | 6769 (99) | 1.68 × 10−1 | 61 999 (99) | 4335 (99) | 9.94 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 401 (1) | 42 (1) | 509 (1) | 35 (1) | ||
| B01AC06 acetylsalicylic acid | ||||||
| No | 44 604 (87) | 6079 (89) | 4.50 × 10−9 | 54 175 (87) | 3887 (89) | 1.86 × 10−5 |
| Yes | 6842 (13) | 732 (11) | 8333 (13) | 483 (11) | ||
| C07 β-blocking agents | ||||||
| No | 48 273 (94) | 6392 (94) | 9.81 × 10−1 | 58 587 (94) | 4098 (94) | 9.24 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 3173 (6) | 419 (6) | 3921 (6) | 272 (6) | ||
| C08 calcium channel blockers | ||||||
| No | 47 802 (93) | 6374 (94) | 4.53 × 10−2 | 58 107 (93) | 4087 (94) | 1.67 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 3644 (7) | 437 (6) | 4401 (7) | 283 (6) | ||
| C03 diuretics | ||||||
| No | 47 687 (93) | 6352 (93) | 9.42 × 10−2 | 57 968 (93) | 4095 (94) | 1.79 × 10−2 |
| Yes | 3759 (7) | 459 (7) | 4540 (7) | 275 (6) | ||
| C02 antihypertensives | ||||||
| No | 50 716 (99) | 6739 (99) | 1.86 × 10−2 | 61 628 (99) | 4324 (99) | 6.07 × 10−2 |
| Yes | 730 (1) | 72 (1) | 880 (1) | 46 (1) | ||
| C09 agents acting on the renin angiotensin system | ||||||
| No | 44 437 (86) | 5971 (88) | 3.57 × 10−3 | 54 094 (87) | 3832 (88) | 3.28 × 10−2 |
| Yes | 7009 (14) | 840 (12) | 8414 (13) | 538 (12) | ||
| N02A opioids | ||||||
| No | 50 044 (97) | 6414 (94) | 1 × 10−10 | 60 470 (97) | 4107 (94) | 1 × 10−10 |
| Yes | 1402 (3) | 397 (6) | 2038 (3) | 263 (6) | ||
| N02B other analgesics and antipyretics | ||||||
| No | 38 515 (75) | 4683 (69) | 1 × 10−10 | 46 089 (74) | 2952 (68) | 1 × 10−10 |
| Yes | 12 931 (25) | 2128 (31) | 16 419 (26) | 1418 (32) | ||
| N02C antimigraine preparations | ||||||
| No | 51 042 (99) | 6700 (98) | 1 × 10−10 | 61 964 (99) | 4296 (98) | 6.10 × 10−8 |
| Yes | 404 (1) | 111 (2) | 544 (1) | 74 (2) | ||
| N03A antiepileptics | ||||||
| No | 50 997 (99) | 6675 (98) | <1 × 10−10 | 61 860 (99) | 4292 (98) | 5.65 × 10−6 |
| Yes | 449 (1) | 136 (2) | 648 (1) | 78 (2) | ||
| N04A anticholinergic agents | ||||||
| No | 51 439 (100) | 6809 (100) | 2.84 × 10−1 | 62 499 (100) | 4369 (100) | 4.91 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 7 (0) | 2 (0) | 9 (0) | 1 (0) | ||
| N04B dopaminergic agents | ||||||
| No | 51366 (100) | 6797 (100) | 4.20 × 10−1 | 62 402 (100) | 4363 (100) | >.99 |
| Yes | 80 (0) | 14 (0) | 106 (0) | 7 (0) | ||
| N05A antipsychotics | ||||||
| No | 51 365 (100) | 6736 (99) | <1 × 10−10 | 62 410 (100) | 4330 (99) | <1 × 10−10 |
| Yes | 81 (0) | 75 (1) | 98 (0) | 40 (1) | ||
| N05B anxiolytics | ||||||
| No | 51 398 (100) | 6762 (99) | <1 × 10−10 | 62 444 (100) | 4330 (99) | <1 × 10−10 |
| Yes | 48 (0) | 49 (1) | 64 (0) | 40 (1) | ||
| N05C hypnotics and sedatives | ||||||
| No | 51 369 (100) | 6714 (99) | <1 × 10−10 | 62 380 (100) | 4311 (99) | <1 × 10−10 |
| Yes | 77 (0) | 97 (1) | 128 (0) | 59 (1) | ||
| N06A antidepressants | ||||||
| No | 51 405 (100) | 5499 (81) | <1 × 10−10 | 61 783 (99) | 3491 (80) | <1 × 10−10 |
| Yes | 41 (0) | 1312 (19) | 725 (1) | 879 (20) | ||
| N06B psychostimulants agents used for ADHD and nootropics | ||||||
| No | 51 443 (100) | 6808 (100) | 2.43 × 10−2 | 62 504 (100) | 4369 (100) | 2.87 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 3 (0) | 3 (0) | 4 (0) | 1 (0) | ||
| N06C psycholeptics and psychoanaleptics in combination | ||||||
| No | 51 446 (100) | 6808 (100) | 1.60 × 10−3 | 62 503 (100) | 4369 (100) | 3.33 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 0 (0) | 3 (0) | 5 (0) | 1 (0) | ||
| N06D antidementia drugs | ||||||
| No | 51 184 (99) | 6788 (100) | 6.96 × 10−2 | 62 196 (100) | 4354 (100) | 2.69 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 262 (1) | 23 (0) | 312 (0) | 16 (0) | ||
| N07A parasympathomimetics | ||||||
| No | 51 432 (100) | 6807 (100) | 1.51 × 10−1 | 62 484 (100) | 4368 (100) | 6.86 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 14 (0) | 4 (0) | 24 (0) | 2 (0) | ||
| N07B drugs used in addictive disorders | ||||||
| No | 51 424 (100) | 6798 (100) | 9.10 × 10−5 | 62 480 (100) | 4363 (100) | 6.72 × 10−3 |
| Yes | 22 (0) | 13 (0) | 28 (0) | 7 (0) | ||
| N07C antivertigo preparations | ||||||
| No | 51 331 (100) | 6784 (100) | 9.64 × 10−3 | 62 366 (100) | 4354 (100) | 9.53 × 10−2 |
| Yes | 115 (0) | 27 (0) | 142 (0) | 16 (0) | ||
| N01A anesthetics, general | ||||||
| No | 51 444 (100) | 6808 (100) | 1.33 × 10−2 | 62 498 (100) | 4368 (100) | 1.83 × 10−1 |
| Yes | 2 (0) | 3 (0) | 10 (0) | 2 (0) | ||
Abbreviations: ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; BMI, body mass index, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.
a
Race and ethnicity data were gathered for this study via self-report and electronic health record because ethnicity is a known confounder in epidemiological studies. Categories are as they are presented in the UK Biobank and included Asian or Asian British, Black or Black British, Chinese, White, mixed, and other.
b
Including Bangladeshi, Indian, Pakistani, and any other Asian background.
c
Including African, Caribbean, and any other Black background.
d
Including White British, Irish, and any other White background.
e
Including Asian and White, Black African and White, Black Caribbean and White, and any other mixed background.
f
Individual responses not reported.
g
Medications are defined by Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical codes.