| size (structural properties) |
EPLS, TRPS, NMR,
MALDI, UV–vis, ICP-MS, DCS, EXAFS,
AFM, DLS, XRD, SEM, TEM, HRTEM, and magnetic susceptibility |
| size distribution |
FMR, ICP-MS, NTA,
SAXS, DLS, DCS, TRPS, DTA, SEM, and superparamagnetic
relaxometry |
| shape |
3D-tomography,
FMR, EPLS, AFM, TEM, and HRTEM |
| crystal structure |
EXAFS, XRD, electron diffraction, STEM, and HRTEM |
| chemical state and oxidation state |
XPS,
EELS, XAS, and Mössbauer spectroscopy |
| elemental and chemical composition |
MFM, SEM-EDX, ICP-OES,
NMR, ICP-MS, LEIS, XRD, and XPS |
| surface charge |
EPM and zeta-potential |
| surface area
and specific surface area |
liquid NMR and BET |
| growth kinetics |
liquid-TEM, cryo-TEM, TEM,
NMR, and SAXS |
| concentration |
DCS, PTA, RMM-MEMS, UV–vis, and ICP-MS |
| agglomeration state |
TEM,
cryo-TEM, SEM, UV–vis, DCS, zeta-potential, and
DLS |
| density |
RMM-MEMS and DCS |
| single particle properties |
liquid
TEM, HRTEM, MFM, and Sp-ICP-MS |
| 3D visualization |
SEM, AFM, and 3D-tomography |
| NPs distribution in matrices/supports |
AFM, TEM, and SEM |
| abnormalities in the structure |
BSD and HRTEME |
| NPs detection |
EBSD, SEM, STEM, TEM, and magnetic-susceptibility |
| optical properties |
EELS-STEM and UV–vis-NIR |
| magnetic
properties |
XMCD, FMR, MFM, Mössbauer spectroscopy,
VSM, and SQUID |
