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. 2023 Apr 20;11:82. doi: 10.1186/s40168-023-01532-y

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — Cascading relationships of the denitrification and anammox functions. Path diagrams estimating the effects of nirS/K-type OTUs on the anammox enrichment with lake sediments in bioreactor systems (a). Black and red lines represent positive and negative effects, respectively. Numbers adjacent to the arrows are standardized path coefficients. The arrows refer to unidirectional causal relationships (*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01). The keystone taxa identified to be important for predicting the denitrification and anammox functions at different stages (b)