TABLE 2.

Molecular mechanisms of mulberry leaves in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

Treatment modalities	Experimental models	Molecular mechanisms	References
Improving oxidative stress	Diabetic rats	↑SOD, CAT, GPX, G6PDH	Garg and Bansal (2000)
			Ng et al. (2000)
		↓ MDA	Andallu et al. (2012)
			Liu et al. (2017)
	Islet β-cells	↑ CCO, SDH, SOD	Liu et al. (2017)
Improving insulin resistance	Diabetic rats	↑IRS-1/PI3K/Glut-4	Cai et al. (2016)
	HepG2-cells	↑IRS1/PI3K/Akt/GSK3β	Niu et al. (2020)
	Diabetic rats	↑IRS1/PI3K/Akt/GLUT4	Liu et al. (2015)
Inhibits disaccharide absorption	Diabetic rats	↓SGLT1, Na+/K + -ATP, GLUT2	Li et al. (2013a)
			Li et al. (2013b)
	Diabetic mouse	↓α-amylase, α-glucosidase	Silva et al. (2021a)
Regulation of lipid metabolism	Diabetic rats	↑PPARα, Fas, HSL	Yamauchi et al. (2001)
			Ahmadian et al. (2010)
		↑pAMPK, ADPN, AdipoR1, AdipoR2	Chang et al. (2013)
		↓ Hepatic glucose production	Fullerton et al. (2013)
			Fang and Judd (2018)
	HepG2-cells	↓TC, TG, HDLc, Inflammatory factor secretion	Li et al. (2021a)
	Diabetic rats	↓ Fat absorption by the body	Ben Bacha et al. (2018)
		↓ Fatty accumulation in the liver	Li et al. (2021b)
Improving microbes in the gut	Diabetic mouse	↓Lactobacillus, Dobrobacter, Streptococcus, Lactococcus, Vibrio thiobacillus	Hu et al. (2019)
		↑Bacteroidetes, Haemophilus, Ackermannia, Anaerobes