Table 2.
Sample characteristics and prenatal care utilization among pregnant women with CL-OUD
| Total | Timely Prenatal Care | Late Prenatal Care | p valuea | Adequate Prenatal Care | Inadequate Prenatal Care | p valuea | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N = 317 | N = 203 (64.0%) | N = 114 (36.0%) | N = 174 (54.9%) | N = 143 (45.1%) | |||
| Age, years b | 28.1 ± 4.5 (R: 18–42) | 28.0 ± 4.4 | 28.2 ± 4.8 | 0.67 | 28.0 ± 4.6 | 28.2 ± 4.5 | 0.63 |
| Gravidity c | 0.12 | 0.28 | |||||
| 1 (First Pregnancy) | 42 (13.2%) | 23 (11.3%) | 19 (16.7%) | 24 (13.8%) | 18 (12.6%) | ||
| 2–3 | 122 (38.5%) | 86 (42.4%) | 36 (31.6%) | 73 (42.0%) | 49 (34.3%) | ||
| 4 + | 153 (48.3%) | 94 (46.3%) | 59 (51.8%) | 77 (44.3%) | 76 (53.1%) | ||
| Parity | 0.76 | 0.42 | |||||
| 1 (First Delivery) | 75 (23.9%) | 48 (23.8%) | 27 (24.1%) | 46 (26.7%) | 29 (20.4%) | ||
| 2–3 | 170 (54.1%) | 112 (55.4%) | 58 (51.8%) | 89 (51.7%) | 81 (57.0%) | ||
| 4 + | 69 (22.0%) | 42 (20.8%) | 27 (24.1%) | 37 (21.5%) | 32 (22.5%) | ||
| Chronic Medical Condition c | 0.38 | 0.15 | |||||
| No | 80 (25.2%) | 48 (23.6%) | 32 (28.1%) | 38 (21.8%) | 42 (29.4%) | ||
| Yes | 237 (74.8%) | 155 (76.4%) | 82 (71.9%) | 136 (78.2%) | 101 (70.6%) | ||
| Pregnancy-Related Medical Condition c | 0.001‡ | ||||||
| No | 176 (55.5%) | - | - | 82 (47.1%) | 94 (65.7%) | ||
| Yes | 141 (44.5%) | - | - | 92 (52.9%) | 49 (34.3%) | ||
| Nicotine Use in Pregnancy | 0.36 | 0.67 | |||||
| No | 48 (15.2%) | 28 (13.9%) | 20 (17.7%) | 25 (14.4%) | 23 (16.2%) | ||
| Yes | 267 (84.8%) | 174 (86.1%) | 93 (82.3%) | 148 (85.6%) | 119 (83.8%) | ||
| OUD Severity d | 0.67 | 0.27 | |||||
| Mild | 8 (5.0%) | 6 (5.5%) | 2 (4.0%) | 7 (7.1%) | 1 (1.6%) | ||
| Moderate | 37 (23.1%) | 23 (20.9%) | 14 (28.0%) | 21 (21.4%) | 16 (25.8%) | ||
| Severe | 115 (71.9%) | 81 (73.6%) | 34 (68.0%) | 70 (71.4%) | 45 (72.6%) | ||
| History of Injection Drug Use c | 0.41 | 0.10 | |||||
| No | 91 (28.8%) | 55 (27.2%) | 36 (31.6%) | 43 (24.9%) | 48 (33.6%) | ||
| Yes | 225 (71.2%) | 147 (72.8%) | 78 (68.4%) | 130 (75.1%) | 95 (66.4%) | ||
| Hepatitis C Diagnosis c | 0.21 | 0.17 | |||||
| None | 130 (42.3%) | 86 (43.4%) | 44 (40.4%) | 69 (41.1%) | 61 (43.9%) | ||
| History of Infection | 63 (20.5%) | 45 (22.7%) | 18 (16.5%) | 41 (24.4%) | 22 (15.8%) | ||
| Active Infection | 114 (37.1%) | 67 (33.8%) | 47 (43.1%) | 58 (34.5%) | 56 (40.3%) | ||
| MOUD at Prenatal Care Initiation c | 0.16 | ||||||
| Buprenorphine | 174 (55.8%) | 119 (59.5%) | 55 (49.1%) | - | - | ||
| Methadone | 58 (18.6%) | 36 (18.0%) | 22 (19.6%) | - | - | ||
| None documented | 80 (25.6%) | 45 (22.5%) | 35 (31.2%) | - | - | ||
| Duration of MOUD c | 0.003‡ | ||||||
| Entire Prenatal Care Period | 213 (68.9%) | - | - | 130 (76.5%) | 83 (59.7%) | ||
| Documented MOUD Interruption | 38 (12.3%) | - | - | 13 (7.6%) | 25 (18.0%) | ||
| No MOUD documented | 58 (18.8%) | - | - | 27 (15.9%) | 31 (22.3%) | ||
| Mood Disorder | 0.56 | 0.32 | |||||
| No | 61 (19.2%) | 37 (18.2%) | 24 (21.1%) | 30 (17.2%) | 31 (21.7%) | ||
| Yes | 256 (80.8%) | 166 (81.8%) | 90 (78.9%) | 144 (82.8%) | 112 (78.3%) | ||
| Anxiety Disorder | 0.26 | 0.34 | |||||
| No | 69 (21.8%) | 40 (19.7%) | 29 (25.4%) | 34 (19.5%) | 35 (24.5%) | ||
| Yes | 248 (78.2%) | 163 (80.3%) | 85 (74.6%) | 140 (80.5%) | 108 (75.5%) | ||
| History of any Interpersonal Trauma c | 0.05 | 0.19 | |||||
| No | 139 (45.0%) | 80 (40.8%) | 59 (52.2%) | 69 (41.6%) | 70 (49.0%) | ||
| Yes | 170 (55.0%) | 116 (59.2%) | 54 (47.8%) | 97 (58.4%) | 73 (51.0%) | ||
| History of Physical Trauma d | 0.33 | 0.44 | |||||
| No | 177 (64.4%) | 105 (62.1%) | 72 (67.9%) | 89 (62.2%) | 88 (66.7%) | ||
| Yes | 98 (35.6%) | 64 (37.9%) | 34 (32.1%) | 54 (37.8%) | 44 (33.3%) | ||
| History of Sexual Trauma d | 0.03‡ | 0.41 | |||||
| No | 176 (63.3%) | 101 (58.4%) | 75 (71.4%) | 91 (61.1%) | 85 (65.9%) | ||
| Yes | 102 (36.7%) | 72 (41.6%) | 30 (28.6%) | 58 (38.9%) | 44 (34.1%) | ||
| Number of Psychiatric Diagnoses b, c | 2.1 ± 1.2 (R: 0–5) | 2.2 ± 1.2 | 2.0 ± 1.3 | 0.43 | 2.3 ± 1.2 | 2.0 ± 1.1 | 0.03‡ |
| Race e | 0.40 | 0.20 | |||||
| Black or African American | 2 (0.6%) | 1 (0.5%) | 1 (0.9%) | 0 (0.0%) | 2 (1.5%) | ||
| American Indian or Alaskan Native | 3 (1.0%) | 3 (1.5%) | 0 (0.0%) | 3 (1.8%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
| Asian | 0 (0.0%) | - | - | - | - | ||
| Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | 1 (0.3%) | 0 (0.0%) | 1 (0.9%) | 1 (0.6%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
| White | 300 (97.4%) | 195 (97.5%) | 105 (97.2%) | 166 (97.1%) | 134 (97.8%) | ||
| Multiracial | 2 (0.6%) | 1 (0.5%) | 1 (0.9%) | 1 (0.6%) | 1 (0.7%) | ||
| Ethnicity e | 0.50 | 1.00 | |||||
| Hispanic/Latina | 9 (2.9%) | 7 (3.6%) | 2 (1.8%) | 5 (3.0%) | 4 (2.9%) | ||
| Non-Hispanic/Latina | 297 (97.1%) | 190 (96.4%) | 107 (98.2%) | 162 (97.0%) | 135 (97.1%) | ||
| Marital Status | 0.33 | 0.64 | |||||
| Single | 76 (25.0%) | 53 (26.8%) | 23 (21.7%) | 44 (26.0%) | 32 (23.7%) | ||
| Married or Partnered | 228 (75.0%) | 145 (73.2%) | 83 (78.3%) | 125 (74.0%) | 103 (76.3%) | ||
| Stable Housing Source c | < 0.001‡ | 0.002‡ | |||||
| No | 82 (26.8%) | 37 (18.9%) | 45 (40.9%) | 34 (19.8%) | 48 (35.8%) | ||
| Yes | 224 (73.2%) | 159 (81.1%) | 65 (59.1%) | 138 (80.2%) | 86 (64.2%) | ||
| Education d | 0.77 | 0.63 | |||||
| Less than secondary school | 53 (26.9%) | 34 (25.4%) | 19 (30.2%) | 31 (27.7%) | 22 (25.9%) | ||
| Secondary school or GED completed | 90 (45.7%) | 63 (47.0%) | 27 (42.9%) | 48 (42.9%) | 42 (49.4%) | ||
| Tertiary, partial and completed | 54 (27.4%) | 37 (27.6%) | 17 (27.0%) | 33 (29.5%) | 21 (24.7%) | ||
| Employment c | 0.14 | 0.34 | |||||
| Any unemployment | 211 (73.8%) | 138 (71.1%) | 73 (79.3%) | 119 (71.7%) | 92 (76.7%) | ||
| Employed only | 75 (26.2%) | 56 (28.9%) | 19 (20.7%) | 47 (28.3%) | 28 (23.3%) | ||
| Health Insurance e | 0.15 | 0.48 | |||||
| Private only | 7 (2.2%) | 3 (1.5%) | 4 (3.6%) | 3 (1.7%) | 4 (2.9%) | ||
| Private and Public | 6 (1.9%) | 6 (3.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 5 (2.9%) | 1 (0.7%) | ||
| Public (i.e., Medicaid, State Plan) | 284 (91.0%) | 181 (90.0%) | 103 (92.8%) | 155 (90.1%) | 129 (92.1%) | ||
| Uninsured | 15 (4.8%) | 11 (5.5%) | 4 (3.6%) | 9 (5.2%) | 6 (4.3%) | ||
| Prenatal Care Location c | 0.02‡ | < 0.001‡ | |||||
| Non-rural | 132 (41.6%) | 75 (36.9%) | 57 (50.0%) | 58 (33.3%) | 74 (51.7%) | ||
| Rural | 185 (58.4%) | 128 (63.1%) | 57 (50.0%) | 116 (66.7%) | 69 (48.3%) | ||
| Utilized own transportation d | 0.19 | 0.08 | |||||
| No | 145 (71.8%) | 89 (68.5%) | 56 (77.8%) | 78 (66.7%) | 67 (78.8%) | ||
| Yes | 57 (28.2%) | 41 (31.5%) | 16 (22.2%) | 39 (33.3%) | 18 (21.2%) | ||
| Transportation by family or friends d | 0.17 | 0.98 | |||||
| No | 119 (58.9%) | 72 (55.4%) | 47 (65.3%) | 69 (59.0%) | 50 (58.8%) | ||
| Yes | 83 (41.1%) | 58 (44.6%) | 25 (34.7%) | 48 (41.0%) | 35 (41.2%) | ||
| Utilized publicly subsidized transportation d | 0.02‡ | 0.04‡ | |||||
| No | 117 (57.9%) | 83 (63.8%) | 34 (47.2%) | 75 (64.1%) | 42 (49.4%) | ||
| Yes | 85 (42.1%) | 47 (36.2%) | 38 (52.8%) | 42 (35.9%) | 43 (50.6%) | ||
| Most Intensive Legal Involvement c | < 0.001‡ | 0.001‡ | |||||
| Incarceration | 151 (50.3%) | 80 (41.5%) | 71 (66.4%) | 70 (41.9%) | 81 (60.9%) | ||
| Court Diversion Program | 42 (14.0%) | 35 (18.1%) | 7 (6.5%) | 32 (19.2%) | 10 (7.5%) | ||
| Community Supervision | 107 (35.7%) | 78 (40.4%) | 29 (27.1%) | 65 (38.9%) | 42 (31.6%) | ||
| Number of live children | 0.38 | 0.36 | |||||
| 0 | 83 (26.2%) | 53 (26.1%) | 30 (26.3%) | 51 (29.3%) | 32 (22.4%) | ||
| 1 | 97 (30.6%) | 68 (33.5%) | 29 (25.4%) | 54 (31.0%) | 43 (30.1%) | ||
| 2 | 70 (22.1%) | 40 (19.7%) | 30 (26.3%) | 33 (19.0%) | 37 (25.9%) | ||
| 3 + | 67 (21.1%) | 42 (20.7%) | 25 (21.9%) | 36 (20.7%) | 31 (21.7%) | ||
| Parenting Status d | 0.01‡ | 0.68 | |||||
| No custody of older children | 147 (63.4%) | 86 (57.3%) | 61 (74.4%) | 77 (62.1%) | 70 (64.8%) | ||
| Current custody of older children | 85 (36.6%) | 64 (42.7%) | 21 (25.6%) | 47 (37.9%) | 38 (35.2%) | ||
| History of Child Protective Service Involvement d | 1.00 | 0.53 | |||||
| No | 62 (32.1%) | 41 (32.3%) | 21 (31.8%) | 39 (33.9%) | 23 (29.5%) | ||
| Yes | 131 (67.9%) | 86 (67.7%) | 45 (68.2%) | 76 (66.1%) | 55 (70.5%) | ||
‡ Statistically significant, p-value < 0.05
ap-values were obtained by Student t-test for continuous variables, χ2 test, or Fisher exact test for small samples for categorical variables
b Mean, standard deviation, and range values calculated for continuous variables
c Variable considered for inclusion in multivariable analysis when p-value < 0.25 and < 10% missing data
d Variable has more than 10% missing data
e Variable excluded from multivariable analysis due to lack of sufficient cell variability