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. 2023 Apr 20;14:2268. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-37998-5

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — a Cross-section SEM images; b enlarged view of a; c Infrared spectrum among the region of 400–1800 cm⁻¹; XPS analysis: d F 1 s; e S 2p; f Li 1 s; g Nano-indentation test and simulated load-displacement curve. The horizontal coordinate corresponds to lithium dendrite length, and the vertical coordinate corresponds to the force; h, i COMSOL simulation of the electrolyte deformation. The pressure cloud diagram under the same deformation before h and after i cycling; COMSOL simulations of Li dendrite growth during prolonged time of 300 s j with NNFQSE or k without NNFQSE.