Abstract
Studies of the reliability and validity of Feng Shui using empirical and quantitative methods remain lacking. The purpose of this study is, therefore, to quantitatively examine the consistency of the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners regarding 108 Feng Shui taboos for residential space. This study also investigates whether these judgments are inconsistent or different with respect to gender, occupation, education, and Feng Shui school. Furthermore, this study examines the effect of time intervals, Feng Shui experience, and the presence or absence of taboo illustrations in the judgments. To perform the study, two questionnaire surveys were conducted at six-month intervals to collect the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners. A total of 11 Feng Shui scholars and 67 practitioners participated in the first survey, while 10 Feng Shui scholars and 32 practitioners participated in the second survey. The results showed that: (1) Feng Shui scholars and practitioners had very good internal consistency reliability of their judgments regarding residential taboos. There were no significant differences in judgments, regardless of gender, occupation, education, and Feng Shui school; (2) The influence of Feng Shui experience on the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners as a whole was relatively weak; (3) Although the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners was not satisfactory, there were no significant differences between their first and second judgments; and (4) The influence of the illustrations of residential taboos on the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners as a whole was relatively weak. Although the illustrations had a greater influence on the judgments of Feng Shui practitioners than of scholars, these illustrations did not change their judgments.
Keywords: Internal consistency reliability, Test-retest reliability, Feng Shui experience, Residential taboo illustration, Superstition
1. Introduction
Feng Shui [風水] is unique and traditional Chinese approach to locating, designing, and constructing dwellings to seek harmony between people and the environment. The history of Feng Shui can be traced back to the Western Zhou Dynasty 3000 years ago [1], and the earliest documents on the subject can be traced back to the late Ch'in Dynasty [2] more than 2000 years ago. The influence of Feng Shui has spread across Asia and into the West [3]. Yet people around the world have formed different opinions of Feng Shui. Some regard Feng Shui as a superstition. Some scholars consider Feng Shui a “quasi-science” that may have positive practical value [4] and rationality [5], but lacks objective verification. A scholar in China claims that Feng Shui is a cultural phenomenon that transcends scientific or cultural value [6]. According to a scholar in Taiwan, Feng Shui is part of a national ideology, which plays an important role in the behavioral patterns and concepts of nations, and is an inseparable part of culture [7]. He further emphasizes that “in order to understand the influences of Feng Shui on living environments, it is necessary to start with taboos” ([7] p.136).
Rather than discussing Feng Shui from a cultural, historical, or philosophical standpoint, this study attempts to apply scientific research methods to investigate Feng Shui. Modern science emphasizes reliability, validity, and replication. Science is organized, systematic and accurate knowledge acquired by means of systematic empirical research methods [8]. Reliability is the ability to obtain consistent or stable results, while validity is the ability to accurately examine the characteristics of a problem [9,10]. Replication means that results can be reproduced [11]. Thus, using scientific approaches, a cultural phenomenon can be scientifically investigated. Similarly, a “culture”, a “phenomenon”, or an “ideology” can be objectively examined for its reliability and validity. Despite this, empirical and quantitative studies on the reliability and validity of Feng Shui remain scarce [12].
It is difficult to analyze the effectiveness of Feng Shui in producing results such as the “five blessings” [五福]: longevity, wealth, health and tranquility, virtue, and a good death [13]. Modern science can, however, provide an analysis of Feng Shui in terms of its reliability and validity. At present, evidence is inconclusive for a direct relationship between Feng Shui and good/bad luck. Its reliability, however, is amenable to examination. Do people who understand and practice Feng Shui, such as Feng Shui scholars and practitioners, have consistent opinions regarding good/bad luck or taboos in living environments? Are Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of different genders, occupational categories, educational levels, and Feng Shui schools similar in their judgments on taboos for residential space? Furthermore, are the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners on taboos for residential space affected by time intervals? These are the considerations involved in a test-retest reliability.
The purpose of this study is, therefore, to shed light on the reliability of Feng Shui via empirical and quantitative examinations. Specifically, this study will quantitatively examine the consistency of the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners regarding residential taboos, and investigate whether gender, occupational category, educational level, and Feng Shui school affect the judgments of residential taboos among Feng Shui scholars and practitioners, and to further investigate the effect of time intervals and the presence or absence of taboo illustrations on judgments of residential taboos. This article is the first empirical study of the reliability of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of the residential taboos, which collects first-hand data by using questionnaire surveys for empirical and quantitative examination and replication on this subject.
2. Literature review
2.1. Introduction to Feng Shui
The ancient Chinese believed that Qi [氣] is the origin of all life and exists in everything in the universe. However, “Qi is dispersed by the wind [風] and gathered by water [水]. The ancients gathered Qi to prevent it from getting dispersed and properly managing it; so this was called Feng Shui. The principle of Feng Shui is that obtaining the water is the best and protection against the wind is the second” [14]. Since both wind and water are elements of nature, creating protection against the wind and gathering water require specific geographical and environmental considerations that take into account the topographical patterns of mountains and the flow of rivers [7]. Archaeological evidence shows that habitat selection to gain this type of protection against the wind and gathering of Qi originated in the Yang Shao [仰韶] culture, centered in the mountainous regions of the Loess Plateau, such as the Ban Po Village [半坡村] heritage site, during the Neolithic period more than 6000 years ago [15].
Feng Shui gradually evolved in the Tang Dynasty [2], developing into two major schools of thought: Luan Tou [巒頭] and Li Qi [理氣], which Feng Shui practitioners can follow and apply. The Luan Tou school focuses on physical phenomena, such as topography, vegetation, and climate, as well as the surrounding environment, astronomy and astrology, and other observations using the five senses. The Li Qi school uses a compass to determine positions and observes the Qi to judge the direction of mountains and the flow of water. It also takes into account the Yin [陰] and Yang [陽], the Five Elements [五行], the Chinese sexagenary cycle [干支], eight trigrams [八卦], nine-square division [九宮], and theories of mutual generation and mutual restraint [相生相剋] [13]. Luan Tou is earlier than Li Chi. It is easier to understand and more popular than Li Qi. The theory behind the Li Qi school is complicated, with more taboos. It spread across a limited geographical region, emphasizing fortune-telling and changing one's luck [15]. Ideally, Luan Tou and Li Qi should be combined and applied at the same time [12]. Another school is the Xuan Shen [玄神], which focuses on the psyche where the Qi gathers and on the different feelings of people [16].
2.2. Feng Shui taboos for residential space
According to Han's book [7], “Feng Shui and Environment”, taboos already existed during the Warring States Period, even before the formation of systematic ideas of the methods of residence. The methods of residence [宅法] involve management of the residence environment to obtain good luck and to avoid bad luck. It was not until the Han Dynasty, however, that a more complete theory and methodology of Feng Shui began to be developed, and not until the Ming Dynasty that works dedicated to Feng Shui residences appeared, such as the “Encyclopedia of Feng Shui for Residences” [陽宅大全], published in the tenth year of the reign of Emperor Wanli (1582). In order to help people understand the concept, outcomes deduced by Feng Shui theories were presented in an easy and comprehensible way. In the last few hundred years, methods of residence have been incorporated into mnemonic rhymes and prohibitory regulations, so that both Feng Shui practitioners and the general public could easily remember it. Taboo-related concepts have become deeply rooted in people's minds after being passed down from generation to generation, influencing and shaping living environments. Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Chinese people have been living with Feng Shui taboos which are considered important in understanding the impact of Feng Shui on people's living environments. Treating Feng Shui taboos as Feng Shui itself is not an exaggeration since taboos are deeply embedded in the hearts of the Chinese people. Han even pointed out that except for taboos, there was no common language among Feng Shui practitioners because Feng Shui literature is difficult to understand and there are many schools of thought on Feng Shui [7].
There are four books on Feng Shui residence methods identified by Han [7] that represent distinct eras: (1) The New Version of Recalibrated Geography [重校正地理新書], produced in the Jin Dynasty, which combines imperial and popular Feng Shui concepts that people in the Song Dynasty applied. This is a quasi-official text containing several taboos for residence methods with illustrations and detailed notes. (2) Ten Books on Residences [陽宅十書], written in the late Ming Dynasty but included in Collected Ancient and Modern Literature‧Art Classics‧Chinese Geomancy [古今圖書集成‧藝術典‧堪輿篇] and edited in the Qing Dynasty. This text offers a clear system, complete chapters, and illustrations, and is also a quasi-official book. (3) Eight Mansions [八宅明鏡], published in the mid-Qing Dynasty, which continues the essentials of the taboos in the late Ming Dynasty but also shows the situation of the increasing building density in southern China. (4) The Complete Works of Yin Yang Feng Shui Geography [陰陽地理風水全集], originally titled Feng Shui handout [風水講義], was published in 1927. Easy to understand, it is the most systematic. It is a comprehensive collection of traditional Feng Shui practices starting from the Ming Dynasty. Of the four texts, it best represents relatively modern taboos for residence methods because it provides the most information about recent versions of taboos.
About one-fifth of the pages in The Complete Works of Yin Yang Feng Shui Geography are devoted to the discussion of Residence Geography [陽宅地理], including the following taboo aspects: shape observation [相形], transformative shape [改造形], sand shape and water shape [砂形水形], urban house foundation [城市宅基], gatehouses [大門門樓], corridors [廂廊], patios [天井], walls [牆壁], ponds [池塘], trees [樹木], and alleys [巷弄]. The shape of residences should follow the principles of being quadrilateral, well-proportioned, balanced, non-additive, not facing directly, flat, and well-constructed. The urban house foundation is based on the principle described as “streets as water, walls as sand”. The waterway outside the door is called Ming Tang [明堂], while the opposite house is called An Shan [案山]. Both Ming Tang and An Shan adopt the principle of tombs [陰宅] to the town. The gatehouse should be balanced, symmetrical, and square. The corridor should be well-kept and balanced. The walls should be circuitous and complete. They should not be broken down, exposed, penetrated, or facing anything directly. Level and circuitousness are the principles of ponds and trees. This text has greater content than previous literature, but seldom mentions the external environment of the residence, which continues a trend of gradually reducing taboos related to the natural environment, and gradually increasing taboos pertaining to indoor environments, which has grown since the Ming Dynasty. This is in response to the increasing population density of residential environments in the south of the Yangtze River [7].
Han argues that most of the taboos belong to the Luan Tou [巒頭] school, while relatively few belong to the Li Qi [理氣] school [7]. The Luan Tou school, also known as the form school, focuses on the visible phenomenon of the physical environments, while the Li Qi school, also known as the compass school, emphasizes the determination of the position and direction of the site to acquire Qi [13]. The taboos can be divided into three categories. The first category is contour image, which is used to judge good or bad luck. It could come in the shape of a dragon, tiger, throne, canopy, or penholder. The second category is the symbolic impression, such as sense of vitality and feeling of sadness. The third category is architectural layout, which should be balanced, well-kept, bright, and appropriate. Wu believes that Feng Shui taboos are characterized by “the form of Luan Tou”, “the orientation of Li Qi”, “Yin Yang eight trigrams” [陰陽八卦], “Generation and Restriction of Five Elements” [五行生剋], and “ethics and etiquette” [倫常禮法], which are comprehensive, universal, and common Feng Shui principles [17]. Han also identified 24 taboos related to indoor environment from The Complete Works of Yin Yang Feng Shui Geography, but three of these were not illustrated [7].
Some Feng Shui taboos may have existed since ancient times. However, most of them have changed over the centuries. For instance, Feng Shui taboos emphasized external environments in the earlier eras and paid more attention to courtyards and architecture in later eras. Since the late Ming Dynasty, living environments such as towns and settlements have become more important than natural environments. In addition, later generations became increasingly concerned about the taboos of Chong She [沖射] in which buildings are directly facing obtrusive and harmful elements, such as roads, roof ridges, wall corners, or telegraph poles [7]. Chong [沖] means being “directly affected by Sha Qi”, and Sha Qi [煞氣] is energy that produces negative effects [18]. Moreover, since ancient times, the gate is considered an important element in residence methods [7], because it is capable of sending Qi from the outside to the inside of the house, into the individual rooms [19]. With the modernization and urbanization of residential spaces, Feng Shui may also be affected [17]. Hence, the following section also discusses more recent studies on Feng Shui taboos.
In the past two decades, most studies on Feng Shui taboos have focused on “Chong” or “Sha Qi”, because Qi is the core of Feng Shui. Sha Qi can be classified as either Nei Sha (internal malignance) [內煞] or Wai Sha (external malignance) [外煞]. Nei Sha refers to Sha Qi produced based on indoor layout, compartments, interior decoration, or home furnishings, while Wai Sha refers to Sha Qi generated by mountains, rivers, roads, buildings, plants, and objects surrounding a house [18]. Since Nei Sha is normally easier to manage by improving interior decorations or changing home furnishings, taboos related to interior furnishings or movable objects are given less attention. Wai Sha on the other hand, involves largely external environmental factors that are difficult to control [20].
Wu was able to gather 43 Nei Sha-related taboos in architectural design from the “Zi Bai Fei Xing Fa of the Li Qi school” (Flying Star Feng Shui) [理氣派紫白飛星法], which include taboos for the gate (nine), bedroom (nine), hall of gods (12), study room (one), toilet (six), and kitchen (six) [17]. Juan explored eight residential layout-related taboos in developing a customized system for pre-selling houses that follow Feng Shui practices [21]. Li gathered 23 Feng Shui taboos in establishing an intelligent system for selecting houses and arranging furniture based on the Li Qi school, which include taboos for home design (five), gate (seven), window (three), toilet (six), and stairs (two) [22]. Chen compiled 15 gate-related taboos in analyzing the effect of Feng Shui interior layout on the purchase intention of home buyers [19]. In sum, these scholars identified a total of 89 Nei Sha-related taboos.
Bai et al. gathered 11 Wai Sha-related taboos in studying the effect of architectural Feng Shui on the purchase behavior of home buyers [23]. Lin explored seven taboos in evaluating the impact of Feng Shui on real estate prices [18]. Huang et al. discussed home buyers’ awareness of negative Feng Shui and its influence on purchase intention based on 16 taboos, which include nine types of Wai Sha and seven types of Wai Sha for aversion facilities [24]. Chang explored nine taboos in evaluating the impact of Wai Sha on housing prices [20]. In sum, these scholars identified a total of 43 Wai Sha-related taboos.
2.3. Empirical and quantitative study on the reliability of Feng Shui
Currently, there is only one empirical and quantitative study on Feng Shui environments that examines the consistency of the judgments of Feng Shui researchers in Taiwan (authors of Feng Shui literature, members of Feng Shui organizations, advisors of master's theses and doctoral dissertations on Feng Shui, and teachers studying Feng Shui in colleges or universities) [25]. In this study, two questionnaire surveys were conducted to collect the judgments of Feng Shui researchers regarding Feng Shui environments. The second survey was accompanied by satellite images of Feng Shui environments to examine the influence of the images on the judgments of Feng Shui researchers and the test-retest reliability. The results showed that: (1) In the initially survey, 95 Feng Shui researchers had a very good internal consistency reliability for their judgments of Feng Shui quality in 63 environments (Cronbach's α > 0.9, [26]), regardless of their gender, educational level, occupation, and Feng Shui school, except for those who studied the Xuan Shen [玄神] school. There were also no significant differences in gender, educational level, occupation, and Feng Shui school; (2) In the second survey, 70 Feng Shui researchers, except for females, showed acceptable internal consistency reliability for their judgments of Feng Shui quality in terms of building, dragon [龍], sand [砂], cave [穴], water, orientation [向], and the overall quality in nine good and nine bad Feng Shui environments (Cronbach's α > 0.7 [26]). There were no significant differences in gender, educational level, occupation, and Feng Shui school in terms of building, dragon, cave, water, and orientation; (3) As a covariate, Feng Shui experience only had a significant influence on the judgments of buildings for gender and occupation, and on the judgments of caves depending on the Feng Shui school; (4) Based on the judgments of the same 18 environments by the same Feng Shui researchers at three-month intervals, 16 (88.9%) were significantly and positively correlated (p < 0.05), and there was no significant difference between the two surveys; and (5) The presence or absence of satellite images did not change the judgments of overall Feng Shui quality. In sum, earlier research has found that Feng Shui researchers have good consistency in their judgments of Feng Shui environments.
3. Methods
The main questions inspired by the previous study [26] to tackle in this study include the consistency of the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners regarding residential taboos, the possible influence of gender, occupational category, educational level, and Feng Shui school on judgments of residential taboos, and the effect of Feng Shui experience, illustrations of residential taboos, and time interval on such judgments. In addition, the consistencies and differences of judgments were further evaluated. Similarly, the effect of time intervals on the judgments (test-retest reliability) was also analyzed in terms of consistency and differences. Questionnaire surveys of closed questions in Chinese were used to collect the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners regarding residential taboos. The questionnaire surveys were conducted twice to examine the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners.
Based on the above questions, research hypotheses were constructed. It should be noted that reliability cannot be examined statistically for any single item. Therefore, the consistency/reliability of both scholars and practitioners' judgments of each taboo cannot be investigated statistically. The research hypotheses were to examine: (1) the overall internal consistency reliability of the research participants, (2) the internal consistency reliability specifically with respect to the participants' backgrounds, (3) the influence of Feng Shui experience on the participants' judgment, (4) the test-retest reliability of the participants' judgments and the influence of time interval on the participants' judgments, and (5) the influence of taboo illustrations on the participants’ judgments. The specific research hypotheses are as follows.
Research hypothesis 1: Feng Shui scholars and practitioners have good internal consistency reliability of their judgments of the earlier taboos for residential space of The Complete Works of Yin Yang Feng Shui Geography (published in 1927) and more recent taboos for residential space identified by scholars within the past 20 years.
Research hypothesis 2: Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of different genders, occupational categories, educational levels, and Feng Shui schools have good internal consistency reliability of their judgments of the earlier and more recent taboos for residential space.
Research hypothesis 3: (a) The judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of different genders, occupational categories, educational levels, and Feng Shui schools regarding the earlier and more recent taboos for residential space are not affected by their experience; (b) There are also no significant differences between genders, occupational categories, educational levels, and Feng Shui schools, after accounting for their Feng Shui experience.
Research hypothesis 4: (a) There are significant positive correlations between the two judgments six months apart of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners, respectively, with regard to earlier and more recent taboos for residential space and (b) there are no significant differences between the two judgments six months apart.
Research hypothesis 5: (a) The judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners that are six months apart with regard to earlier and more recent taboos for residential space are not affected by the presence or absence of illustrations of such taboos. (b) There are also no significant differences between the judgments with and without illustrations.
3.1. Research participants
The essential criteria of the recruited participants were people who at least understood Feng Shui. Those who had practiced Feng Shui were considered to be even more appropriate. Research participants, therefore, included Feng Shui scholars and practitioners. Feng Shui scholars were full-time or part-time teachers of Feng Shui courses in the departments of universities in Taiwan, and advisors of doctoral dissertations or master's theses on Feng Shui. The above information was obtained by searching the Internet. Feng Shui practitioners included members of Feng Shui, Geography [地理], Chinese Geomancy [堪輿], Five Techniques [五術], and other organizations registered with the Ministry of the Interior. The above information was obtained from the website of the Ministry of the Interior. Therefore, we recruited the participants via convenience search. The informed consent was obtained from the research participants with the sent back questionnaires.
3.2. Questionnaire contents
Han identified 30 earlier Feng Shui taboos from The Complete Works of Yin Yang Feng Shui Geography, including 24 interior shapes of residences [陽宅內形] and six exterior shapes of residences [陽宅外形], which had understandable descriptions and illustrations [7]. Later on, scholars compiled 132 more recent Feng Shui residential taboos, including 89 Nei Sha-related [17,[20], [21], [22]] and 43 Wai Sha-related [18,20,23,24]. After deleting similar (e.g. the house is big and the door is small, the house is small and the door is big vs poor ratio of door size to house size; facing the corner of walls [壁刀煞] vs Qie Jiao Sha [切角煞] vs Wu Jiao Sha [屋角煞]), redundant (e.g. the toilet faces the door vs the door faces the toilet; the toilet is at the center of the house; the house faces the road [路沖]; Yin Xie Sha (Ying malignance) [陰邪煞]; Tian Zhan Sha (narrow gap malignance) [天斬煞]; Fan Gong Sha (anti-arc malignance) [反弓煞]; Jian Dao Sha (scissors malignance) [剪刀煞]; Yao Zhan Sha (cut in half malignance) [腰斬煞]; dead end road [無尾巷]; and Ya Ding Sha (capping malignance) [壓頂煞]), or unknown taboo terms (e.g. Gu Du Fang [孤獨房], Qing Long Pi Tou [青龍披頭], Qing Long Cha Wei [青龍插尾]) numbering 24 in all, we included a total of 108 residential taboos (89 Nei Sha +43 Wai Sha – 24 similar, redundant, or unknown taboo terms = 108; [7,[18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25]]). Among these were 24 earlier residential taboos, 17 were more recent Wai Sha-related taboos and 67 were more recent Nei Sha-related taboos.
A seven-point scale was assigned to each of these residential taboos, which Feng Shui scholars and practitioners used to rank the severity of the taboos. A higher score represents a higher level of bad luck. There was also a ‘no judgment’ option. Moreover, Feng Shui scholars and practitioners were requested to provide their background information, including: name, gender, year of birth, contact information, occupation, educational level, Feng Shui school, and years of experience in Feng Shui, for use in examining the research hypotheses. After the first questionnaire was completed, a Feng Shui scholar, who is also a practitioner, was invited to review it and revisions were made accordingly. In the second questionnaire, earlier residence taboos and more recent Wai Sha-related taboos were accompanied by illustrations. A question with a seven-point scale was added to determine whether these illustrations affected their judgments: the higher the score, the greater the influence. Given that the questionnaires were developed based on the Feng Shui taboos identified by scholars and approved by a Feng Shui scholar/practitioner, the questionnaires had content validity [27]. The empirical results of the reliability of the questionnaires and taboos are presented later.
3.3. Questionnaire survey
The first survey was conducted in September 2020. The questionnaires were sent to Feng Shui scholars and collected by e-mail, while mail-back questionnaires were sent to Feng Shui practitioners and collected by post. The questionnaires were mailed directly to Feng Shui practitioners with addresses, while those with no addresses were sent to organizations of Feng Shui, Geography, Chinese Geomancy, and Five Techniques, to be distributed to their members. To properly manage the order effect, three versions of the questionnaires were prepared when the first questionnaires were sent. In version one, residential taboos were arranged in the following order: earlier taboos, more recent Wai Sha, more recent Nei Sha. In version two, the order was: more recent Wai Sha, more recent Nei Sha, and earlier taboos, while in version three it went more recent Nei Sha, more recent Wai Sha, and earlier taboos. These three questionnaire versions were randomly distributed to Feng Shui scholars and practitioners using the random number generator of Microsoft Excel, keeping the numbers as equal as possible.
The second survey was conducted in March 2021. The participants were Feng Shui scholars and practitioners who sent back their first questionnaires. The questionnaires were also sent to Feng Shui scholars and collected by e-mail, while mail-back questionnaires were sent to Feng Shui practitioners and collected by post. Since the first questionnaires were collected and the addresses of Feng Shui practitioners were provided, there was no need for organizations to distribute the questionnaires. To prevent survey redundancy and boredom among Feng Shui scholars and practitioners while completing the second questionnaire, there were accompanying illustrations of the earlier and more recent Wai Sha (Fig. 1). This approach also allowed us to examine the influence of the illustrations on the judgments of the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners and their test-retest reliability. When the second questionnaires were sent, three versions were also prepared. However, to prevent Feng Shui scholars and practitioners from filling out the same version of questionnaires, the first completed version of the questionnaire was removed, and the other two versions were randomly assigned to Feng Shui scholars and practitioners using the random number generator of Microsoft Excel.
Fig. 1.
Illustrations of the taboos for the residential space.
4. Results
The means and standard deviations of the participant ratings of 108 Feng Shui taboos for residential space of the two questionnaire surveys are provided in Appendix A. The means of the ratings of the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners for the 108 taboos of the first questionnaire survey range from 2.143 to 6.182 and from 2.756 to 5.929, respectively. The standard deviations of the ratings of the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of the 108 taboos of the first questionnaire survey range from 0.919 to 2.532 and from 1.633 to 2.263, respectively. The standard deviations indicate that the judgments of the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners on each taboo did not disperse across a wide range [28]. The means of the ratings of the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of the 108 taboos on the second questionnaire survey range from 2.556 to 5.875 and from 2.238 to 5.833, respectively. The standard deviations of the ratings of the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners for the 108 taboos of the second questionnaire survey range from 1.126 to 2.406 and from 1.350 to 2.113, respectively. The standard deviations indicate that the judgments of the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of each taboo did not disperse across a wide range [28].
4.1. First questionnaire survey
4.1.1. Feng Shui scholars
4.1.1.1. Background information
In the first survey of Feng Shui scholars, a total of 33 questionnaires were sent out and 11 were returned, with a response rate of 33.3%. Among these, there were 11 valid questionnaires with no missing values. Among the valid questionnaires, there were nine male participants (81.8%) and two female participants (18.2%). Their average age was 58.7 years (SD = 9.9), and their average Feng Shui experience was 20.5 years (SD = 12.6). In educational level, there were nine Ph.D. holders (81.8%) and two master's degree holders (18.2%). It should be noted that the questionnaires originally had 11 detailed categories of education field. Since there were only a few participants in each category and we did not have a proper way to reclassify them into major groups, we did not conduct any statistical analyses of the education field. Under the occupational category, there were eight scholars (72.7%). It should also be noted that the questionnaires originally had 11 detailed categories of occupation. When conducting the statistical analyses, we reclassified the occupation into five major categories (scholar, agriculture, industry, commerce, and other) to prevent there being too few participants in each category. For their Feng Shui school, most respondents indicated more than the three main schools (Luan Tou, Li Qi, and Xuan Shen). There were other schools specified. Therefore, the Feng Shui schools were reclassified into two major categories, “Luan Tou and additional schools” and “others”. Eight scholars under the Luan Tou and additional schools accounted for the majority of Feng Shui scholars (72.7%).
4.1.1.2. Reliability analysis with respect to Feng Shui scholars’ backgrounds
To examine research hypotheses 1 and 2, reliability analyses were conducted. For the 11 Feng Shui scholars' ratings of the 108 taboos, except for those that could not be analyzed due to a very low number of participants, the Cronbach's α was greater than 0.9 (Table 1).
Table 1.
Reliability of Feng Shui scholars based on the first survey.
| Item | Details | No. of Participant | Cronbach's α |
|---|---|---|---|
| Feng Shui residential taboos | Overall | 11 | 0.992 |
| Earlier taboo | 11 | 0.931 | |
| More recent Wai Sha | 11 | 0.937 | |
| More recent Nei Sha | 11 | 0.986 | |
| Gender | Male | 9 | 0.992 |
| Female | 2 | （No analysis due to a very low number of respondents） | |
| Educational level | Master's degree | 2 | （No analysis due to a very low number of respondents） |
| Ph.D. | 9 | 0.992 | |
| Occupational category | Scholar | 8 | 0.992 |
| Industry | 1 | （No analysis due to a very low number of respondents） | |
| Commerce | 1 | （No analysis due to a very low number of respondents） | |
| Others | 1 | （No analysis due to a very low number of respondents） | |
| Feng Shui school | Luan Tou and additional schools | 8 | 0.992 |
| Others | 3 | （No analysis due to a very low number of respondents） |
4.1.1.3. One factor analysis of covariance with respect to Feng Shui scholars’ backgrounds and experience
To examine research hypotheses 3a and 3b, one factor analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) were conducted. Since Feng Shui scholars' experience may influence their judgments, experience was taken into account in examining whether there were differences between Feng Shui scholars’ backgrounds. Accordingly, gender, occupational category, educational level, and the Feng Shui school were used as an independent variable, respectively. Residential taboos (earlier, more recent Wai Sha and Nei Sha) were used as dependent variables, and Feng Shui experience was used as a covariate to conduct ANCOVAs. However, before the ANCOVA was conducted, it was necessary to examine whether the homogeneity was normally distributed to confirm the suitability of the analysis [29,30]. When the ANCOVA was performed and the basic premise was not satisfied, data transformation was conducted, including square root, sine, cosine, arctangent, logarithm, and absolute value. In addition, since there was more than one residential taboo, family-wise error rate was adopted to reduce type I errors when examining possible differences [31]. The Bonferroni method was used for post-hoc comparisons and p < 0.05 was considered significant.
The results for the 108 residential taboos were as follows. (1) There were no significant differences in gender (p > 0.05/108 = 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in seven residential taboos (6.5%) (F(1,4-8)≥6.163, p ≤ 0.048). (2) There were no significant differences in the occupational category (p > 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in four residential taboos (3.7%) (F(3,5-6)≥6.708, p ≤ 0.049). (3) In educational level, only one residential taboo showed a significant difference (0.9%), the more recent Wai Sha's Jian Dao Sha (scissors malignance) [剪刀煞] (F(1,8) = 38.913, p = 0.000), while the post-hoc comparison showed that the rating was significantly higher for scholars with a master's degree than with a Ph.D. (Table 2). As a covariate, experience had a significant influence on 11 residential taboos (10.2%) (F(1,6-8)≥6.522, p ≤ 0.041). (4) There were no significant differences in Feng Shui school (p > 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in seven residential taboos (6.5%) (F(1,4-8)≥5.741, p ≤ 0.048).
Table 2.
Post-hoc comparison of Feng Shui scholars in the first survey.
| Feng Shui residential taboos | Dependent variable | Independent variable | Mean | Standard deviation | 95% Confidence interval |
Post-hoc comparison | Data transformation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lower bond | Upper bond | |||||||
| More recent Wai Sha | scissors malignance | Master | 0.729 | 0.217 | 0.228 | 1.230 | Master >Ph.D. | Sine |
| Ph.D. | −0.781 | 0.099 | −1.010 | −0.552 | ||||
4.1.2. Feng Shui practitioners
4.1.2.1. Background information
In the first survey of Feng Shui practitioners, a total of 308 questionnaires were sent out and 67 were returned, with a response rate of 21.8%. There were 67 valid questionnaires with no missing values. Among the valid questionnaires, there were 61 male participants (91.0%) and six female participants (9.0%). Their average age was 63.3 years (SD = 12.9), and their average Feng Shui experience was 20.4 years (SD = 15.2). In educational level, the largest category was an education below the college level, with 35 participants (52.2%), followed by those with a bachelor's degree at 18 (26.9%), and 14 (20.9%) with a master's degree. In occupational category, the highest number were in commerce, with 27 (40.3%), followed by 23 (34.3%) in other occupations, nine in scholars (13.4%), and eight (11.9%) in industry. Most respondents indicated not only the three main schools of Feng Shui, but also other schools. Hence, the category “Feng Shui school” was reclassified into three major categories: “Luan Tou and additional schools”, “Li Qi and additional schools”, and “others”. “Luan Tou and additional schools” accounted for the highest number of participants, 36 (53.7%), followed by “others” with 19 participants (28.4%) and “Li Qi and additional schools” with 12 participants (17.9%).
4.1.2.2. Reliability analysis with respect to Feng Shui practitioners’ backgrounds
To examine research hypotheses 1 and 2, reliability analyses were conducted. For the 67 Feng Shui practitioners' judgments regarding the 108 taboos, except for those that could not be analyzed due to very low number of participants, the Cronbach's α was greater than 0.9 (Table 3).
Table 3.
Reliability of Feng Shui practitioners based on the first survey.
| Item | Details | No. of Participants | Cronbach's α |
|---|---|---|---|
| Feng Shui residential taboos | Overall | 67 | 0.987 |
| Earlier taboo | 67 | 0.972 | |
| More recent Wai Sha | 67 | 0.942 | |
| More recent Nei Sha | 67 | 0.987 | |
| Gender | Male | 61 | 0.987 |
| Female | 6 | （No analysis due to a very low number of respondents） | |
| Educational level | Below college-level | 35 | 0.989 |
| Bachelor's degree | 18 | 0.985 | |
| Master's degree | 14 | 0.974 | |
| Occupational category | Scholar | 9 | （No analysis due to a very low number of respondents） |
| Industry | 8 | 0.977 | |
| Commerce | 27 | 0.989 | |
| Others | 23 | 0.964 | |
| Feng Shui school | Luan Tou and additional schools | 36 | 0.984 |
| Li Qi and additional schools | 12 | 0.978 | |
| Others | 19 | 0.991 |
4.1.2.3. One factor analysis of covariance with respect to Feng Shui practitioners’ backgrounds and experience
To examine research hypotheses 3a and 3b, we conducted ANCOVAs to determine whether there were differences between Feng Shui practitioners’ backgrounds, taking into account the influence of their experience. The results showed for the 108 residential taboos were as follows. (1) There were no significant differences in gender (p > 0.00046), while experience as a covariate reached statistical significance in 16 residential taboos (14.8%) (F(1,39-54)≥4.316, p ≤ 0.044). (2) There were no significant differences in the occupational category (p > 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in three residential taboos (2.8%) (F(3,5-6)≥6.708, p ≤ 0.049). (3) There were no significant differences in educational level (p > 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in one residential taboo (0.9%) (F(2,51) = 4.110, p = 0.048). (4) There were no significant differences for Feng Shui school (p > 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in two residential taboos (6.5%) (F(2,46-47)≥4.296, p ≤ 0.044).
4.2. Second questionnaire survey
The second survey was conducted six months after the first survey.
4.2.1. Feng Shui scholars
4.2.1.1. Background information
In the second survey of the Feng Shui scholars, a total of 11 questionnaires were sent out and 10 were returned, with a response rate of 90.9%. There were 10 valid questionnaires with no missing values. Participants returning valid questionnaires included eight male participants (80.0%) and two female participants (20.0%). Their average age was 56.3 years (SD = 6.0), and their average Feng Shui experience was 17.6 years (SD = 8.4). There were seven Ph.D. holders (70.0%) and three master's degree holders (30.0%) among the participants. Under the occupational category, there were seven scholars (70.0%). Among the Feng Shui school, seven participants (70.0%) studied Luan Tou and additional schools, accounting for the highest number of participants.
4.2.1.2. Reliability analysis with respect to Feng Shui scholars’ background
To examine research hypotheses 1 and 2, reliability analyses were conducted. However, because of the low number of respondents, reliability analyses could not be performed.
4.2.1.3. One factor analysis of covariance with respect to Feng Shui scholars’ backgrounds and experience
To examine research hypotheses 3a and 3b, we conducted ANCOVAs to determine whether there were differences between Feng Shui scholars’ backgrounds, taking into account the influence of their experience. The results for the 108 residential taboos were as follows. (1) There were no significant differences in gender (p > 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in seven residential taboos (6.5%) (F(1,4-7)≥5.753, p ≤ 0.048). (2) There were no significant differences in occupational category, and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in three residential taboos (2.8%) (F(3,5)≥6.787, p ≤ 0.048). (3) There were no significant differences in educational level (p > 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in eight residential taboos (7.4%) (F(1,4-7)≥6.321, p ≤ 0.044). (4) There were no significant differences in Feng Shui school (p > 0.00046), and experience as a covariate only reached statistical significance in eight residential taboos (7.4%) (F(1,6-7)≥5.634, p ≤ 0.049).
4.2.2. Feng Shui practitioners
4.2.2.1. Background information
In the second survey of Feng Shui practitioners, a total of 67 questionnaires were sent out and 32 were returned, with a response rate of 47.8%. There were 32 valid questionnaires with no missing values. Participants returning valid questionnaires included 32 male participants (100.0%), whose average age was 68.9 years (SD = 7.197). The average Feng Shui experience was 31.0 years (SD = 11.655). In educational level, the highest number, 24 (75.0%), had less than a college-level education, followed by four participants each with university and master's degrees (12.5% each). Twenty participants (62.5%) studied in the Luan Tou and additional Feng Shui schools, followed by seven participants who studied in other schools (21.9%), and five participants (15.6%) who studied in the Li Qi and additional schools.
4.2.2.2. Reliability analysis with respect to Feng Shui practitioners’ backgrounds
To examine research hypotheses 1 and 2, reliability analyses were conducted. For the 32 Feng Shui practitioners' judgments regarding the 108 taboos, except for those that could not be analyzed due to very low number of participants, the Cronbach's α was greater than 0.9 (Table 4).
Table 4.
Reliability of Feng Shui practitioners based on the second survey.
| Item | Details | No. of Participants | Cronbach's α |
|---|---|---|---|
| Feng Shui residential taboos | Overall | 32 | 0.988 |
| Earlier taboo | 32 | 0.955 | |
| More recent Wai Sha | 32 | 0.961 | |
| More recent Nei Sha | 32 | 0.988 | |
| Gender | Male | 32 | 0.988 |
| Female | 0 | (No analysis due to a very low number of respondents) | |
| Educational level | Below college-level | 24 | 0.991 |
| Bachelor's degree | 4 | (No analysis due to a very low number of respondents) | |
| Master's degree | 4 | (No analysis due to a very low number of respondents) | |
| Occupational category | Scholar | 5 | 0.974 |
| Industry | 2 | (No analysis due to a very low number of respondents) | |
| Commerce | 13 | 0.988 | |
| Others | 12 | 0.989 | |
| Feng Shui schools | Luan Tou and additional schools | 20 | 0.980 |
| Li Qi and additional schools | 5 | (No analysis due to a very low number of respondents) | |
| Others | 7 | 0.994 |
4.2.2.3. One factor analysis of covariance with respect to Feng Shui practitioners’ backgrounds and experience
To examine research hypotheses 3a and 3b, we conducted ANCOVAs to determine whether there were differences between Feng Shui practitioners’ backgrounds, taking into account the influence of their experience. No analysis of gender was performed since all the Feng Shui practitioners were male. Results for the 108 residential taboos were as follows. (1) There were no significant differences in the occupational category, and experience as a covariate reached statistical significance in 18 residential taboos (16.7%) (F(3,19-25)≥4.487, p ≤ 0.045). (2) There were no significant differences in educational level, and experience as a covariate reached statistical significance in 12 residential taboos (11.1%) (F(2,23-27)≥4.292, p ≤ 0.049). (3) There were no significant differences for Feng Shui school, and experience as a covariate reached statistical significance in 11 residential taboos (10.2%) (F(2,23-27)≥4.301, p ≤ 0.049).
4.3. Consistency between the first and second surveys
To examine research hypothesis 4a, the same Feng Shui scholars and practitioners in the first and second surveys were used for correlation analyses of the judgments of 108 residential taboos to examine their test-retest reliability. In addition, to examine research hypothesis 4b, the judgments of more recent Nei Sha that had no accompanying illustrations in the two surveys were examined using paired sample t tests to determine whether there was any difference. Furthermore, to examine research hypothesis 5a and 5b, both the judgments of earlier residential taboos and more recent Wai Sha in the second survey had accompanying illustrations, and together with the judgments of the first survey, were analyzed using one factor ANCOVAs with repeated measures to determine whether there was any difference and whether the illustrations affected the judgment of residential taboos.
4.3.1. Feng Shui scholars
4.3.1.1. Correlation analysis of the two surveys
For the 24 earlier taboos for residential space, the Pearson correlation coefficients ranged from −0.706 to 0.950, of which four taboos (16.7%) reached statistical significance (p < 0.05): Dan Er Fang [單耳房] (r = 0.925), Shuang Er Fang [雙耳房] (r = 0.950), Gu Zhang Fang [蠱脹房] (r = 0.880), and Gui Bei Zhuang Tou Fang [龜背莊頭房] (r = 0.810). For the 17 more recent Wai Sha, the Pearson correlation coefficients ranged from −0.117 to 0.730, of which only one taboo (5.9%) reached statistical significance (p < 0.05): Bai Hu Sha (white tiger malignance) [白虎煞] (r = 0.730). Among the 67 more recent Nei Sha, the Pearson correlation coefficients ranged from −0.320 to 0.933. Sixteen of these taboos (23.9%) reached statistical significance (p < 0.05): a triangle or one side missing (r = 0.777), too narrow or too short (r = 0.884), broken wall (r = 0.791), staircase in the middle of the house (r = 0.777), arch (r = 0.801), visible column when opening the door (r = 0.808), gate facing the elevator (r = 0.778), altar facing the toilet or room door (r = 0.752), pillars facing the room door (r = 0.681), bedroom door facing the toilet door (r = 0.752), gas stove facing the faucet (r = 0.797), kitchen connected to or facing the toilet (r = 0.858), kitchen between the two bedrooms (r = 0.885), stove to the northwest side (r = 0.933), toilet facing the dining room (r = 0.703), and toilet door facing or next to the gate (r = 0.736).
4.3.1.2. Paired sample t-test of the two surveys
There were no significant differences among the 67 more recent Nei Sha (p > 0.05/67 = 0.00075) between the judgments of the Feng Shui scholars on the first and second surveys.
4.3.1.3. One factor analysis of covariance with repeated measures of the two surveys with respect to the illustration
The ANCOVAs with repeated measures provided two important results. (1) There were no significant differences among the 24 earlier taboos for residential space (p > 0.05/(24 + 17 = 41) = 0.00122) between the judgments of the Feng Shui scholars on the first and second surveys, and the taboo illustration as a covariate reached statistical significance only for three residential taboos (12.5%) (F(1,4-6)≥7.456, p ≤ 0.048). (2) For the 17 more recent Wai Sha, there were no significant differences in judgments (p > 0.00122), and the taboo illustration as a covariate reached statistical significance only for one residential taboo (5.9%) (F(1,8) = 17.232, p = 0.003).
4.3.2. Feng Shui practitioners
4.3.2.1. Correlation analysis of the two surveys
For the 24 earlier taboos for residential space, the Pearson correlation coefficients ranged from 0.075 to 0.710, of which 12 (50.0%) reached statistical significance (p < 0.05). For the 17 more recent Wai Sha, the Pearson correlation coefficients ranged from 0.310 to 0.761, of which 15 (88.2%) reached statistical significance (p < 0.05). For the 67 more recent Nei Sha, the Pearson correlation coefficients ranged from 0.046 to 0.772, with 55 taboos (82.1%) reaching statistical significance (p < 0.05) (Appendix B).
4.3.2.2. Paired sample t-test of the two surveys
There were no significant differences among the 67 more recent Nei Sha (p > 0.05/67 = 0.00075) between the judgments of the Feng Shui practitioners on the first and second surveys.
4.3.2.3. One factor analysis of covariance with repeated measures of the two surveys with respect to the illustration
The ANCOVAs with repeated measures provided two important results. (1) There were no significant differences in the 24 earlier taboos for residential space (p > 0.00122) between the judgments of the Feng Shui practitioners on the first and second surveys, and illustrations as a covariate reached statistical significance in 11 residential taboos (45.8%) (F(1,24-28)≥4.643, p ≤ 0.041). (2) There were no significant differences in the 17 more recent Wai Sha (p > 0.00122), and illustrations as a covariate reached statistical significance in 13 residential taboos (76.5%) (F(1,25-29)≥4.266, p ≤ 0.049).
5. Discussion
5.1. Hypotheses examinations
Research hypothesis 1 stated that Feng Shui scholars and practitioners have good internal consistency reliability in their judgments of the earlier and more recent taboos for residential space. This hypothesis was supported. The Cronbach's α of both Feng Shui scholars and practitioners was greater than 0.9, indicating very good reliability [26]. These findings echo those of a previous study showing that Feng Shui researchers had good internal consistency reliability with respect to environments and building, dragon, sand, cave, water, and orientation [25]. Given that both Feng Shui scholars and practitioners had good internal consistency reliability, their judgments of taboos for residential space are not subjective or arbitrary.
Research hypothesis 2 stated that Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of different genders, occupational categories, educational levels, and Feng Shui schools have good internal consistency reliability in their judgments of the earlier and more recent taboos for residential space. This hypothesis was supported. The Cronbach's α of both Feng Shui scholars and practitioners was greater than 0.9, indicating very good reliability [26]. However, it was impossible to perform an analysis of Feng Shui scholars based on gender (female), educational level (master's degree), occupational category (industry, commerce, and other), and Feng Shui school (other), as well as of Feng Shui practitioners based on gender (female) and occupational category (scholar), due to the low number of participants. Nonetheless, this empirical result, in general, demonstrated that both Feng Shui scholars and practitioners had good internal consistency reliability regardless of their personal backgrounds, which further disproved the subjectivity of Feng Shui taboos for residential space. Moreover, these findings are consistent with a previous study showing that Feng Shui researchers had good internal consistency reliability in their judgments of Feng Shui environments regardless of their personal backgrounds [25].
Research hypothesis 3a stated that the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners of different genders, occupational categories, educational levels, and Feng Shui schools regarding earlier and more recent taboos for residential space are not affected by their experience. This hypothesis was partially supported. For Feng Shui experience as a covariate, it was only in the first survey that Feng Shui scholars and practitioners reached statistical significance in more than 10% of residential taboos based on their educational level and gender. In the second survey, the experience of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners reached statistical significance in more than 10% of residential taboos based on occupational category, educational level, and Feng Shui school (Table 5). Therefore, the experience of Feng Shui practitioners seemed to have greater influence on their judgments regarding residential taboos than was the case for Feng Shui scholars, probably because the former have more experience than the latter. Nevertheless, the influence of experience was probably weak (33.3%) for Feng Shui scholars and practitioners as a whole. A previous study also found that the influence of Feng Shui experience on the judgments of Feng Shui researchers was limited (Han & Hong, 2008). Research hypothesis 3b stated that there would be no significant differences due to gender, occupational category, educational level, and Feng Shui school, after accounting for their Feng Shui experience, which was largely supported. When adopting the family-wise error rate for ANCOVAs, only the educational level of Feng Shui scholars in the first survey showed a significant 0.9% difference with regard to taboos (Table 5). Even when the ANCOVAs adopted a conventional significance level, it was only in the first survey that the gender of Feng Shui practitioners reached a significant difference of 17.6% and 10.2% in occupational category, respectively. As for educational levels and Feng Shui schools, significant differences were less than 10% (Table 5). In sum, whether p < 0.05 or p < 0.00046 was adopted, there was little difference in the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners regarding residential taboos, after accounting for the influence of Feng Shui experience, regardless of their gender, occupational category, educational level, and Feng Shui school.
Table 5.
Percentage of Feng Shui residence taboos and Feng Shui experience with statistical significance.
| Gender |
Occupational Category |
Educational Level |
Feng Shui School |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taboo | Experience | Taboo | Experience | Taboo | Experience | Taboo | Experience | |
| Scholars in first survey | 0.0% (0.9%) | 6.5% | 0.0% (0.9%) | 3.7% | 0.9% (8.3%) | 10.2% | 0.0% (0.9%) | 6.5% |
| Scholars in second survey | 0.0% (1.6%) | 6.5% | 0.0% | 2.8% | 0.0% (1.6%) | 7.4% | 0.0% (1.6%) | 7.4% |
| Practitioners in first survey | 0.0% (17.6%) | 14.8% | 0.0% (10.2%) | 2.8% | 0.0% (4.6%) | 0.9% | 0.0% (9.3%) | 1.9% |
| Practitioners in second survey | NA | NA | 0.0% | 16.7% | 0.0% (4.6%) | 11.1% | 0.0% (1.9%) | 10.2% |
The percentage of p < 0.05 (in parenthesis) as the significance level.
Research hypothesis 4a stated that there are significant positive correlations between the two judgments six months apart of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners, respectively, with regard to earlier and more recent taboos for residential space. This hypothesis could not be completely rejected. Regardless of whether the residential taboos were accompanied by illustrations, only 19.4% of the overall test-retest reliability of Feng Shui scholars was significantly and positively correlated. Therefore, most of the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui scholars was not significant and had a small Pearson correlation coefficient (<0.3, [33]). However, 75.9% of the overall test-retest reliability of Feng Shui practitioners was significantly and positively correlated with at least a moderate Pearson correlation coefficient (>0.3 [32]). For residential taboos without accompanying illustrations, the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui scholars in the two surveys was 23.9% with a significantly positive correlation, while in the case of the Feng Shui practitioners, it was 82.1% with a significantly positive correlation. Therefore, for the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners as a whole, the test-retest reliability was not satisfactory. Specifically, the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui practitioners was better than that of Feng Shui scholars, probably because Feng Shui practitioners outnumbered Feng Shui scholars. In general, these findings were not consistent with a previous study showing that Feng Shui researchers had good test-retest reliability of Feng Shui environments at three-month intervals in terms of the percentage of the significant and positive correlations [25]. This may be because of the differences in residence vs environment, six-month intervals vs three-month intervals, and the distinction between Feng Shui scholars and practitioners in this study and Feng Shui researchers in the latter. Further research on the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui practice is needed. Nevertheless, research hypothesis 4b stated that there would be no significant differences between these two judgments six months apart, which was supported. The previous study also found that there were no significant differences between the two judgments of the Feng Shui environments three months apart [25].
Research hypothesis 5a stated that the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners that are six months apart with regard to earlier and more recent taboos for residential space are not affected by the presence or absence of illustrations of such taboos. This hypothesis was partially supported. Only 9.8% of Feng Shui scholars and 58.5% of practitioners' judgment of residential taboos were significantly affected by illustrations. Therefore, for Feng Shui scholars and practitioners as a whole, the influence of the illustrations was probably weak (34.15%). Specifically, illustrations had a greater effect on the judgments of Feng Shui practitioners than on Feng Shui scholars. The different effects of the taboo illustrations on the Feng Shui scholars and practitioners is worthy of further exploration. Research hypothesis 5b stated that there would be no significant differences between the judgments with and without illustrations, which was supported. In the first survey without illustrations and the second survey with illustrations, all ANCOVAs with repeated measures using the family-wise error rate showed that there were no significant differences between Feng Shui scholars and practitioners on the residential taboos. Even when using a conventional significance level, only 4.9% of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners’ judgment of residential taboos showed significant differences. These findings echo a previous study showing that the presence or absence of satellite images did not change the judgments of overall Feng Shui quality of the Feng Shui researchers [25] although the visual stimuli were different (residential taboo illustrations vs satellite images).
5.2. With respect to previous studies
In general, this study examined the consistency of the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners regarding residential taboos, while Han and Hong examined the consistency of judgments of Feng Shui researchers based on the environment [25]. Both results agreed and supported the consistency in the judgments of Feng Shui when it comes to residential space and the environment. Therefore, it appears that Feng Shui is neither subjective nor arbitrary. However, reliability does not necessarily mean that Feng Shui is valid. More empirical studies are needed to determine whether Feng Shui can help bring good luck and avoid bad luck.
Furthermore, this study differentiated between the research participants (Feng Shui scholars vs Feng Shui practitioners) to identify subtle differences between these two groups. Although Feng Shui experience and taboo illustrations had greater influence on the judgments of the Feng Shui practitioners than the Feng Shui scholars, the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui practitioners was greater than that of Feng Shui scholars. If Feng Shui scholars and practitioners were combined for analyses, as Feng Shui researchers in Han and Hong's study were [25], it would be impossible to determine the similarities and differences between Feng Shui scholars and practitioners' judgments of residential taboos, although the number of questionnaire respondents could be increased. Further exploration of the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners might be interesting.
5.3. Limitations
The low response rates of the first questionnaire survey, 33.3% of scholars and 21.8% of practitioners, are limitations of this study. Accordingly, the small number of questionnaire respondents, particularly the number of Feng Shui scholars, is a major limitation of this study. If the number were larger, the results of the statistical analyses would be more comprehensive and have greater statistical power. Moreover, the participants of this study were all Feng Shui scholars and practitioners in Taiwan, a society influenced by Chinese culture. Since Feng Shui is part of Chinese culture, our findings may not be generalizable to other Feng Shui scholars and practitioners who have a different relationship with Chinese culture. The influence of Chinese culture on Feng Shui judgment may be worthy of further research.
6. Conclusions
Among the eight research hypotheses (1, 2, 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b, 5a, and 5b) of the consistency in the judgments of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners regarding taboos for residential space, four (1, 2, 4b, and 5b) were supported, one was largely supported (3b), two were partially supported (3a and 5a), and one could not be completely rejected (4a). Specifically, Feng Shui scholars and practitioners had very good internal consistency reliability in their judgments regarding the 108 earlier and more recent taboos for residential space. Furthermore, they had very good internal consistency reliability with respect to gender, occupational category, educational level, and Feng Shui school. There were also no significant differences between them across gender, occupational category, educational level, and Feng Shui school. Feng Shui experience had greater influence on the judgments of Feng Shui practitioners on residential taboos than it did in the case of Feng Shui scholars. However, for Feng Shui scholars and practitioners as a whole, Feng Shui experience had a weak influence. Moreover, the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui practitioners was greater than that of Feng Shui scholars. Nevertheless, the test-retest reliability of Feng Shui scholars and practitioners as a whole was not satisfactory. However, both Feng Shui scholars and practitioners exhibited no significant differences in the judgments regarding earlier and more recent taboos for residential space, which were six months apart. Although illustrations of residential taboos had greater influence on the judgments of Feng Shui practitioners for residential taboos than it did for Feng Shui scholars, these illustrations had a weak influence for Feng Shui scholars and practitioners as a whole and did not change their judgments regarding residential taboos. Therefore, Feng Shui scholars and practitioners generally had good consistency in their judgments regarding taboos for residential space. Furthermore, the previous study also showed that Feng Shui researchers had good consistency in their judgments with respect to environments [25]. Nevertheless, the validity of Feng Shui awaits deeper empirical and qualitative examinations.
Funding statement
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan under Grant MOST 109-2410-H-167-008.
Author contribution statement
Ke-Tsung Han: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.
Data availability statement
Data will be made available on request.
Declaration of interest's statement
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The author thanks Li-Shih Liao for data collection and Yi-Shin Lin for data analysis.
Appendix A. Means and standard deviations of 108 Feng Shui taboos for residential space
| Feng Shui residential taboos | Variables | First questionnaire survey |
Second questionnaire survey |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Scholars |
Practitioners |
Scholars |
Practitioners |
||||||
| Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
| Earlier | Dan Er Fang [單耳房] | 3.500 | 2.000 | 3.660 | 1.868 | 3.800 | 2.150 | 3.833 | 1.621 |
| Shuang Er Fang [雙耳房] | 3.500 | 2.000 | 3.511 | 1.866 | 3.375 | 2.066 | 3.345 | 1.798 | |
| Dan Ce Fang [單側房] | 3.857 | 2.193 | 3.563 | 1.725 | 3.375 | 1.506 | 3.643 | 1.592 | |
| Gu Yang Fang [孤陽房] | 3.556 | 1.509 | 3.533 | 1.902 | 3.333 | 2.062 | 3.321 | 1.679 | |
| Gu Zhang Fang [蠱脹房] | 2.500 | 1.690 | 3.628 | 1.800 | 2.571 | 1.988 | 2.708 | 1.601 | |
| Bo Ding Fang [卜丁房] | 4.000 | 1.633 | 4.923 | 1.845 | 4.778 | 1.787 | 4.786 | 1.813 | |
| Gan Shui Lin Tou [干水臨頭] | 5.200 | 1.135 | 4.698 | 1.937 | 4.600 | 1.713 | 4.867 | 1.907 | |
| Si Shui Bu Hui Gui [四水不回歸] | 4.250 | 1.669 | 4.571 | 2.000 | 4.000 | 1.633 | 5.069 | 1.710 | |
| Kang Shi Fang [摃屍房] | 4.000 | 1.886 | 4.500 | 1.951 | 3.444 | 1.667 | 4.179 | 1.744 | |
| Mai Er Sha [埋兒殺] | 5.000 | 1.054 | 5.180 | 1.913 | 5.222 | 1.787 | 5.138 | 1.663 | |
| Patio flat straight [天井扁直] | 3.667 | 1.633 | 4.042 | 1.774 | 3.750 | 1.669 | 4.107 | 1.892 | |
| An Suan Fang [暗算房] | 4.375 | 1.408 | 4.152 | 1.633 | 3.500 | 2.070 | 4.333 | 1.414 | |
| Pi Tou Fang [披頭房] | 5.000 | 1.581 | 4.652 | 1.969 | 5.100 | 2.079 | 4.786 | 1.873 | |
| Dan Chi Fang [單翅房] | 4.250 | 1.488 | 4.020 | 1.854 | 4.500 | 1.958 | 4.345 | 1.632 | |
| Shuang Chi Fang [雙翅房] | 4.111 | 1.833 | 4.000 | 1.919 | 4.000 | 2.082 | 3.821 | 1.982 | |
| Ren Chi Fang [人翅房] | 4.000 | 1.500 | 4.046 | 1.892 | 4.125 | 1.959 | 3.593 | 1.886 | |
| Gui Bei Zhuang Tou Fang [龜背莊頭房] | 4.222 | 1.922 | 4.659 | 1.867 | 5.222 | 1.563 | 4.593 | 1.803 | |
| Lou Xing Fang [漏星房] | 4.286 | 1.113 | 4.857 | 1.904 | 4.444 | 1.878 | 4.655 | 1.758 | |
| Tan Yin Fang [癱陰房] | 5.875 | 1.246 | 5.429 | 1.715 | 5.200 | 2.044 | 5.250 | 1.878 | |
| Ku Gu Fang [枯骨房] | 5.143 | 1.069 | 4.596 | 1.973 | 5.200 | 1.751 | 4.704 | 1.958 | |
| Chi Jiao Fang [赤腳房] | 5.444 | 1.424 | 5.298 | 1.812 | 5.875 | 1.885 | 4.862 | 1.995 | |
| Lu Ji Fang [露脊房] | 6.000 | 1.225 | 5.544 | 1.753 | 5.400 | 1.955 | 5.464 | 1.575 | |
| Lu Gu Fang [露骨房] | 5.444 | 1.014 | 5.386 | 1.800 | 5.300 | 1.886 | 5.000 | 1.764 | |
| Gu Du Fang [孤獨房] | 5.000 | 1.581 | 5.151 | 1.657 | 4.900 | 2.132 | 4.536 | 1.895 | |
| More recent Wai Sha | Fan Gong Sha (anti-arc malignance) [反弓煞] | 5.454 | 1.695 | 5.790 | 1.709 | 5.300 | 1.636 | 5.333 | 1.953 |
| Jian Dao Sha (scissors malignance) [剪刀煞] | 4.909 | 1.514 | 5.702 | 1.822 | 5.800 | 1.932 | 5.833 | 1.511 | |
| Yin Xie Sha (Ying malignance) [陰邪煞] | 4.546 | 1.864 | 4.820 | 1.937 | 5.333 | 1.500 | 5.069 | 1.889 | |
| Dead end road [無尾巷] | 4.091 | 1.921 | 4.934 | 1.974 | 4.800 | 1.932 | 4.483 | 2.029 | |
| The house faces the road [路沖] | 5.455 | 1.809 | 5.566 | 1.749 | 4.800 | 1.549 | 5.500 | 2.028 | |
| Facing the corner of walls [壁刀煞] | 4.818 | 1.888 | 5.228 | 1.711 | 5.500 | 1.900 | 5.552 | 1.744 | |
| One old building is between two new ones | 2.909 | 1.640 | 4.415 | 1.823 | 4.500 | 2.121 | 5.551 | 1.724 | |
| Jil Ling Wu (irregular house) [畸零屋] | 3.455 | 1.508 | 4.211 | 1.770 | 5.222 | 2.167 | 4.867 | 1.756 | |
| Yao Zhan Sha (cut in half malignance) [腰斬煞] | 4.909 | 1.814 | 5.468 | 1.706 | 5.600 | 1.506 | 5.581 | 1.501 | |
| Tian Zhan Sha (narrow gap malignance) [天斬煞] | 4.909 | 1.921 | 5.526 | 1.681 | 5.100 | 2.025 | 5.645 | 1.684 | |
| Nearby footbridge | 4.273 | 1.794 | 4.726 | 1.776 | 4.800 | 1.687 | 5.433 | 1.942 | |
| Near a high voltage tower | 5.273 | 1.737 | 5.581 | 1.675 | 4.250 | 1.282 | 5.138 | 1.726 | |
| Nearby gas stations, or gas stores | 4.636 | 1.804 | 4.644 | 1.945 | 4.800 | 1.619 | 5.065 | 1.711 | |
| Nearby red-light districts | 5.200 | 0.919 | 4.883 | 1.833 | 5.500 | 1.581 | 5.774 | 1.564 | |
| Haunted house | 5.889 | 1.269 | 5.228 | 1.813 | 4.700 | 2.312 | 4.900 | 1.807 | |
| Ya Ding Sha (capping malignance) [壓頂煞] | 4.727 | 1.737 | 5.350 | 1.764 | 4.400 | 1.897 | 5.214 | 1.750 | |
| Bai Hu Sha (white tiger malignance) [白虎煞] | 4.000 | 1.886 | 5.156 | 1.814 | 4.778 | 2.108 | 5.000 | 1.930 | |
| More recent Nei Wha |
A triangular house or one side missing | 5.100 | 2.331 | 4.500 | 2.063 | 5.000 | 2.121 | 4.552 | 1.764 |
| The house is too narrow or too short. | 4.200 | 1.229 | 4.583 | 1.778 | 3.700 | 1.636 | 4.032 | 1.516 | |
| The house is shaped like ㄇ or two porches are too close together. | 3.500 | 2.068 | 3.698 | 1.705 | 4.000 | 1.604 | 3.640 | 1.350 | |
| The house is higher or lower than the next one. | 3.250 | 2.053 | 3.736 | 1.745 | 3.571 | 1.134 | 3.519 | 1.602 | |
| The house has broken walls. | 3.200 | 2.201 | 3.968 | 2.048 | 4.125 | 1.807 | 3.633 | 1.608 | |
| The staircase is in the center of the house. | 4.455 | 2.207 | 4.796 | 1.847 | 4.300 | 2.406 | 4.172 | 1.774 | |
| The living room becomes internal circulation. | 3.111 | 1.054 | 3.313 | 1.835 | 3.555 | 1.509 | 2.704 | 1.613 | |
| The room or kitchen is on the left side of the living room. | 2.667 | 1.118 | 3.104 | 1.916 | 3.250 | 1.669 | 3.083 | 1.613 | |
| A beam is above the space. | 3.364 | 2.014 | 3.793 | 1.935 | 3.600 | 1.955 | 3.517 | 1.765 | |
| Arches | 3.000 | 1.732 | 3.938 | 1.906 | 3.444 | 1.944 | 3.393 | 1.685 | |
| No window | 4.636 | 1.859 | 4.436 | 2.106 | 2.714 | 1.496 | 3.042 | 1.876 | |
| A window faces another window. | 3.364 | 2.292 | 3.449 | 1.803 | 2.600 | 1.350 | 3.733 | 1.929 | |
| The study room is near the kitchen or toilet. | 3.400 | 1.578 | 3.907 | 1.740 | 5.300 | 1.829 | 5.533 | 1.525 | |
| The gate is at the left side. | 3.333 | 1.658 | 2.756 | 1.747 | 4.900 | 2.079 | 5.241 | 1.745 | |
| The shoe cabinet near the gate is too high or disorganized. | 2.909 | 1.578 | 3.897 | 1.917 | 5.000 | 1.826 | 5.193 | 1.642 | |
| The outer door, inner door and back door are in a straight line. | 5.182 | 1.722 | 5.214 | 2.006 | 4.000 | 2.000 | 4.333 | 1.688 | |
| Poor ratio of door size to house size | 4.273 | 1.679 | 4.897 | 1.803 | 4.300 | 1.767 | 4.633 | 1.956 | |
| A wall has two doors, multiple doors, or no back door. | 4.455 | 1.214 | 4.796 | 1.917 | 4.111 | 2.088 | 4.667 | 1.647 | |
| The gate opens toward a pillar. | 4.273 | 1.679 | 4.914 | 2.122 | 4.333 | 1.936 | 3.800 | 1.606 | |
| The gate opens to a wall. | 3.546 | 1.695 | 4.000 | 2.145 | 4.600 | 2.011 | 4.207 | 1.720 | |
| The gate faces the corner of walls. | 4.818 | 1.537 | 5.316 | 1.844 | 4.800 | 2.150 | 4.267 | 1.552 | |
| Three gates are opposite to each other like shape品. | 4.000 | 1.414 | 3.843 | 1.848 | 5.111 | 2.028 | 4.897 | 1.839 | |
| The gate faces a window. | 4.000 | 2.055 | 3.830 | 1.773 | 4.778 | 1.856 | 4.807 | 1.797 | |
| The gate faces an elevator. | 4.727 | 1.679 | 4.843 | 1.804 | 4.625 | 2.134 | 4.156 | 1.668 | |
| The gate faces stairs. | 4.909 | 1.514 | 4.423 | 1.892 | 5.300 | 1.567 | 4.936 | 1.825 | |
| The gate faces the back door. | 5.000 | 1.789 | 4.691 | 2.017 | 4.800 | 1.814 | 3.967 | 1.752 | |
| The gate faces a long laneway. | 4.900 | 1.595 | 5.125 | 1.849 | 3.875 | 1.126 | 3.556 | 1.761 | |
| The gate faces a corridor. | 4.091 | 1.221 | 4.208 | 1.833 | 5.500 | 1.780 | 5.000 | 1.661 | |
| The gate faces a toilet. | 4.636 | 1.433 | 5.055 | 1.779 | 4.333 | 1.732 | 3.767 | 1.696 | |
| The gate faces a mirror. | 4.364 | 1.748 | 4.373 | 1.907 | 3.714 | 1.976 | 2.926 | 1.492 | |
| The gate faces a dining room. | 3.300 | 1.494 | 3.900 | 2.013 | 5.000 | 1.871 | 4.065 | 1.948 | |
| The altar faces a road. | 4.400 | 1.955 | 4.712 | 2.052 | 5.444 | 1.810 | 5.065 | 1.711 | |
| The altar faces a road or the corners of a house or sharp objects. | 5.636 | 1.567 | 5.929 | 1.693 | 5.667 | 1.732 | 5.516 | 1.651 | |
| The altar is located at the corner. | 5.727 | 1.348 | 5.368 | 1.848 | 5.667 | 1.658 | 5.733 | 1.363 | |
| The worship space in front of the altar is too narrow. | 3.818 | 1.537 | 3.927 | 1.884 | 3.556 | 1.667 | 3.900 | 1.709 | |
| The left side of the altar is very set back. | 3.727 | 1.618 | 4.527 | 2.026 | 3.900 | 1.853 | 4.531 | 1.901 | |
| The altar is in the bedroom. | 6.182 | 1.250 | 5.667 | 1.958 | 4.200 | 2.098 | 4.548 | 1.981 | |
| The altar is above a passage or a door. | 5.546 | 1.440 | 5.000 | 1.876 | 4.889 | 2.261 | 5.129 | 1.727 | |
| The altar faces a toilet or a room door. | 5.727 | 1.191 | 5.500 | 1.748 | 5.000 | 1.225 | 4.586 | 2.113 | |
| Behind the altar are bathrooms or bedrooms. | 5.182 | 1.601 | 4.779 | 2.134 | 3.556 | 1.740 | 4.448 | 1.804 | |
| The light in front of the altar is perpendicular to the altar table. | 4.455 | 1.695 | 4.793 | 1.885 | 4.000 | 1.673 | 4.567 | 1.794 | |
| The altar is placed on the sides of the gate. | 4.200 | 1.687 | 4.043 | 2.000 | 3.889 | 1.833 | 4.379 | 1.879 | |
| The altar is placed against the wall of the staircase. | 4.000 | 1.342 | 4.436 | 2.007 | 3.900 | 1.792 | 4.655 | 1.542 | |
| A bedroom has two doors. | 4.727 | 1.849 | 4.800 | 1.778 | 5.444 | 1.590 | 4.774 | 1.746 | |
| A beam is above the bed. | 5.200 | 1.932 | 5.246 | 2.149 | 4.800 | 1.814 | 4.433 | 1.755 | |
| The bedroom pillar faces a room door. | 5.182 | 1.471 | 5.036 | 2.009 | 4.000 | 1.826 | 4.667 | 1.729 | |
| The bed is not against the wall. | 4.364 | 2.111 | 4.642 | 1.892 | 4.500 | 1.716 | 5.032 | 1.941 | |
| The foot or head of the bed faces a door. | 5.091 | 1.300 | 4.904 | 2.012 | 5.000 | 1.633 | 4.700 | 1.745 | |
| The kitchen stove is in front of or behind the bed. | 4.900 | 2.025 | 4.855 | 2.022 | 3.000 | 1.500 | 3.677 | 1.720 | |
| The bedroom is too bright. | 3.000 | 1.549 | 3.926 | 2.027 | 2.556 | 1.740 | 3.333 | 1.593 | |
| The furniture in the bedroom is round in shape. | 2.546 | 1.635 | 3.111 | 1.933 | 3.900 | 1.912 | 4.400 | 1.850 | |
| The bedroom door faces the toilet door. | 4.600 | 1.838 | 4.528 | 1.897 | 3.222 | 1.563 | 3.467 | 1.756 | |
| The bedroom door faces a bedroom door. | 2.910 | 1.758 | 3.264 | 1.745 | 2.889 | 1.691 | 3.200 | 1.710 | |
| The bedroom door faces a storage room door. | 3.182 | 1.888 | 3.353 | 1.896 | 3.778 | 1.986 | 4.033 | 2.109 | |
| The gas stove in the kitchen faces the faucet. | 3.800 | 2.098 | 4.510 | 2.063 | 4.500 | 1.927 | 4.433 | 1.960 | |
| The kitchen is connected to or faces the toilet. | 4.444 | 1.944 | 4.800 | 2.129 | 4.800 | 1.932 | 4.800 | 1.846 | |
| The stove is visible at the house entrance. | 4.700 | 1.767 | 5.018 | 2.111 | 4.000 | 2.000 | 4.633 | 1.691 | |
| The kitchen is located in front of the house or in front of the living room. | 4.222 | 1.787 | 4.431 | 2.147 | 4.625 | 1.923 | 4.517 | 1.785 | |
| The kitchen is between two bedrooms. | 4.875 | 1.356 | 4.271 | 2.161 | 4.571 | 1.902 | 4.000 | 2.020 | |
| The kitchen stove is positioned in the northwest direction. | 3.875 | 2.532 | 4.404 | 2.164 | 4.889 | 1.965 | 4.897 | 1.970 | |
| The toilet is at the center of the house. | 5.333 | 1.871 | 5.260 | 1.957 | 4.700 | 2.003 | 4.967 | 1.810 | |
| The toilet faces the kitchen door. | 5.100 | 1.595 | 5.037 | 1.843 | 4.400 | 1.713 | 4.862 | 1.684 | |
| The toilet faces the dining room. | 4.600 | 1.265 | 4.769 | 2.006 | 3.000 | 1.414 | 2.238 | 1.411 | |
| The toilet is at the back of the house. | 2.143 | 1.676 | 2.761 | 1.968 | 4.286 | 1.799 | 3.778 | 1.739 | |
| The toilet is positioned in the northwest direction. | 3.429 | 2.299 | 4.364 | 2.263 | 3.800 | 1.687 | 4.567 | 2.012 | |
| The bathroom floor is higher than the living room floor. | 3.778 | 1.856 | 3.660 | 2.035 | 3.300 | 1.636 | 4.286 | 1.823 | |
| The toilet door faces or is next to the gate. | 4.300 | 1.160 | 5.365 | 1.920 | 3.444 | 1.740 | 4.276 | 1.944 | |
Appendix B. Test-retest reliability of the judgments of Feng Shui practitioners regarding 108 taboos for residential space
| Feng Shui residential taboos | Variables | No. of Participants | Correlation coefficients | Significance (two tail) | Feng Shui residential taboos | Variables | No. of Participants | Correlation coefficients | Significance (two tail) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Earlier | Dan Er Fang [單耳房] | 28 | 0.264 | 0.174 | More recent Nei Sha | The gate is at the left side. | 21 | 0.734 | 0.000** |
| Shuang Er Fang [雙耳房] | 26 | 0.490 | 0.011* | The shoe cabinet near the gate is too high or disorganized. | 28 | 0.566 | 0.002** | ||
| Dan Ce Fang [單側房] | 27 | 0.447 | 0.019* | The outer door, inner door and back door are in a straight line. | 28 | 0.607 | 0.001** | ||
| Gu Yang Fang [孤陽房] | 27 | 0.075 | 0.711 | Poor ratio of door size to house size | 28 | 0.613 | 0.001** | ||
| Gu Zhang Fang [蠱脹房] | 22 | 0.313 | 0.156 | A wall has two doors, multiple doors, or no back door. | 30 | 0.046 | 0.808 | ||
| Bo Ding Fang [卜丁房] | 28 | 0.354 | 0.065 | The gate opens toward a pillar. | 31 | 0.393 | 0.029* | ||
| Gan Shui Lin Tou [干水臨頭] | 30 | 0.599 | 0.000** | The gate opens to a wall. | 28 | 0.441 | 0.019* | ||
| Si Shui Bu Hui Gui [四水不回歸] | 27 | 0.335 | 0.088 | The gate faces the corner of walls. | 30 | 0.612 | 0.000** | ||
| Kang Shi Fang [摃屍房] | 27 | 0.133 | 0.509 | Three gates are opposite to each other like shape品. | 27 | 0.314 | 0.111 | ||
| Mai Er Sha [埋兒殺] | 29 | 0.198 | 0.303 | The gate faces a window. | 27 | 0.485 | 0.010* | ||
| Patio flat straight [天井扁直] | 28 | 0.710 | 0.000** | The gate faces an elevator. | 27 | 0.469 | 0.014* | ||
| An Suan Fang [暗算房] | 26 | 0.556 | 0.003** | The gate faces stairs. | 28 | 0.677 | 0.000** | ||
| Pi Tou Fang [披頭房] | 28 | 0.266 | 0.171 | The gate faces the back door. | 28 | 0.071 | 0.721 | ||
| Dan Chi Fang [單翅房] | 29 | 0.482 | 0.008** | The gate faces a long laneway. | 31 | 0.408 | 0.023* | ||
| Shuang Chi Fang [雙翅房] | 26 | 0.320 | 0.111 | The gate faces a corridor. | 30 | 0.379 | 0.039* | ||
| Ren Chi Fang [人翅房] | 25 | 0.485 | 0.014* | The gate faces a toilet. | 29 | 0.446 | 0.015* | ||
| Gui Bei Zhuang Tou Fang [龜背莊頭房] | 23 | 0.342 | 0.111 | The gate faces a mirror. | 26 | 0.674 | 0.000** | ||
| Lou Xing Fang [漏星房] | 27 | 0.566 | 0.002** | The gate faces a dining room. | 26 | 0.394 | 0.046* | ||
| Tan Yin Fang [癱陰房] | 27 | 0.419 | 0.030* | The altar faces a road. | 29 | 0.188 | 0.329 | ||
| Ku Gu Fang [枯骨房] | 26 | 0.504 | 0.009** | The altar faces a road or the corners of a house or sharp objects. | 29 | 0.491 | 0.007** | ||
| Chi Jiao Fang [赤腳房] | 28 | 0.692 | 0.000** | The altar is located at the corner. | 31 | 0.341 | 0.061 | ||
| Lu Ji Fang [露脊房] | 27 | 0.183 | 0.361 | The worship space in front of the altar is too narrow. | 30 | 0.287 | 0.124 | ||
| Lu Gu Fang [露骨房] | 27 | 0.290 | 0.142 | The left side of the altar is very set back. | 29 | 0.504 | 0.005** | ||
| Gu Du Fang [孤獨房] | 26 | 0.624 | 0.001** | The altar is in the bedroom. | 30 | 0.236 | 0.208 | ||
| More recent Wai Sha | Fan Gong Sha (anti-arc malignance) [反弓煞] | 30 | 0.519 | 0.003** | The altar is above a passage or a door. | 29 | 0.364 | 0.052 | |
| Jian Dao Sha (scissors malignance) [剪刀煞] | 30 | 0.310 | 0.095 | The altar faces a toilet or a room door. | 31 | 0.355 | 0.050* | ||
| Yin Xie Sha (Ying malignance) [陰邪煞] | 28 | 0.565 | 0.002** | Behind the altar are bathrooms or bedrooms. | 28 | 0.740 | 0.000** | ||
| Dead end road [無尾巷] | 28 | 0.636 | 0.000** | The light in front of the altar is perpendicular to the altar table. | 29 | 0.550 | 0.002** | ||
| The house faces the road [路沖]. | 27 | 0.513 | 0.006** | The altar is placed on the sides of the gate. | 25 | 0.629 | 0.001** | ||
| Facing the corner of walls [壁刀煞] | 29 | 0.576 | 0.001** | The altar is placed against the wall of the staircase. | 32 | 0.456 | 0.009** | ||
| One old building is between two new ones | 28 | 0.633 | 0.000** | A bedroom has two doors. | 28 | 0.416 | 0.028* | ||
| Jil Ling Wu (irregular house) [畸零屋] | 28 | 0.488 | 0.008** | A beam is above the bed. | 30 | 0.580 | 0.001** | ||
| Yao Zhan Sha (cut in half malignance) [腰斬煞] | 31 | 0.716 | 0.000** | The bedroom pillar faces a room door. | 30 | 0.624 | 0.000** | ||
| Tian Zhan Sha (narrow gap malignance) [天斬煞] | 31 | 0.612 | 0.000** | The bed is not against the wall. | 29 | 0.469 | 0.010* | ||
| Nearby footbridge | 31 | 0.564 | 0.001** | The foot or head of the bed faces a door. | 28 | 0.598 | 0.001** | ||
| Near a high voltage tower | 31 | 0.612 | 0.000** | The kitchen stove is in front of or behind the bed. | 29 | 0.766 | 0.000** | ||
| Nearby gas stations, or gas stores | 28 | 0.332 | 0.085 | The bedroom is too bright. | 30 | 0.620 | 0.000** | ||
| Nearby red-light districts | 27 | 0.478 | 0.012* | The furniture in the bedroom is round in shape. | 26 | 0.513 | 0.007** | ||
| Haunted house | 29 | 0.444 | 0.016* | The bedroom door faces the toilet door. | 29 | 0.612 | 0.000** | ||
| Ya Ding Sha (capping malignance) [壓頂煞] | 30 | 0.603 | 0.000** | The bedroom door faces a bedroom door. | 29 | 0.728 | 0.000** | ||
| Bai Hu Sha (white tiger malignance) [白虎煞] | 29 | 0.493 | 0.007** | The bedroom door faces a storage room door. | 27 | 0.678 | 0.000** | ||
| More recent Nei Sha | A triangular house or one side missing | 29 | 0.477 | 0.009** | The gas stove in the kitchen faces the faucet. | 29 | 0.590 | 0.001** | |
| The house is too narrow or too short. | 31 | 0.662 | 0.000** | The kitchen is connected to or faces the toilet. | 29 | 0.586 | 0.001** | ||
| The house is shaped like ㄇ or two porches are too close together. | 25 | 0.478 | 0.016* | The stove is visible at the house entrance. | 29 | 0.628 | 0.000** | ||
| The house is higher or lower than the next one. | 26 | 0.303 | 0.132 | The kitchen is located in front of the house or in front of the living room. | 28 | 0.613 | 0.001** | ||
| The house has broken walls. | 30 | 0.668 | 0.000** | The kitchen is between two bedrooms. | 26 | 0.654 | 0.000** | ||
| The staircase is in the center of the house. | 26 | 0.464 | 0.017* | The kitchen stove is positioned in the northwest direction. | 24 | 0.567 | 0.004** | ||
| The living room becomes internal circulation. | 25 | 0.687 | 0.000** | The toilet is at the center of the house. | 25 | 0.613 | 0.001** | ||
| The room or kitchen is on the left side of the living room. | 22 | 0.526 | 0.012* | The toilet faces the kitchen door. | 29 | 0.577 | 0.001** | ||
| A beam is above the space. | 27 | 0.615 | 0.001** | The toilet faces the dining room. | 28 | 0.516 | 0.005** | ||
| Arches | 25 | 0.692 | 0.000** | The toilet is at the back of the house. | 19 | 0.165 | 0.501 | ||
| No window | 29 | 0.528 | 0.003** | The toilet is positioned in the northwest direction. | 23 | 0.241 | 0.269 | ||
| A window faces another window. | 25 | 0.639 | 0.001** | The bathroom floor is higher than the living room floor. | 26 | 0.229 | 0.260 | ||
| The study room is near the kitchen or toilet. | 27 | 0.772 | 0.000** | The toilet door faces or is next to the gate. | 28 | 0.617 | 0.000** |
0 < correlation coefficient <0.09: no relationship; 0.1 < correlation coefficient <0.3: weak relationship; 0.3 < correlation coefficient <0.5: moderate relationship; 0.5 < correlation coefficient <1.0: strong relationship [32].
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Data Availability Statement
Data will be made available on request.