Table 4.
Description of risk and protective factors analysed
| Factors | Example descriptions |
|---|---|
| Adjusted personality disorder (APD) | For example, DSM‐IV personality disorders, Narcissistic Personality Inventory |
| Aggression | For example, Buss‐Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ‐SF) |
| Agreeableness | Big‐five construct: Cooperation/social harmony |
| Alcohol use | The extent to which the individual consumes alcohol |
| Anger/hate | Angry, resentful, furious, or displeased with a given issue or situation |
| Anomia | Social alienation |
| Anti‐democratic attitudes | Negative attitudes towards democratic norms |
| Anxiety | For example, General Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD‐7), |
| Authoritarianism/fundamentalism | Submission to higher authority/aggression to out‐groups |
| Bullied | Victim of bullying during adolescence |
| Collective relative deprivation | In‐group is deprived or discriminated against relative to other groups |
| Commitment | Level of commitment to a cause |
| Conscientiousness | Big five construct: efficient/organized |
| Criminal history | Has a criminal record for unspecified offences |
| Dark‐triad | Narcissism/Machiavellianism/Psychopathy (Dark world view) |
| Dehumanization | The attitude that a person or group lacks good/human qualities |
| Depression | For example, Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ‐9) |
| Deviant peers | Peers support/involved in deviance, including radicalism |
| Discrimination | Experienced personal discrimination based on identity |
| Disconnectedness | Lack of social contacts/activity |
| Drug use | The extent to which the individual uses illicit substances |
| Dual identity | Torn between more than one important group‐based identity |
| Education | Highest level of education attained |
| Experienced violence | Perpetrated/victim of violence involving strangers, bullies, or parents |
| Extraversion | Big five construct: outgoing |
| Family violence | Degree of violence occurring within the family unit |
| Fear of crime | Fear of falling victim to crime |
| General trust | Trusting of others |
| Group superiority | Believing that one's in‐group is better than other groups |
| Harmonious passion | Passion for an activity as an integrated aspect of one's life |
| Immigrant status | The individual is a first or second generation immigrant |
| Individual relative deprivation | Feeling unfairly treated compared to others |
| In‐group identity | Identity is based on a group identity (e.g., religious/ethnic/national) |
| Institutional trust | Confidence in institutions (e.g., police, parliament, courts, etc.) |
| Integration | Degree of attachment to the society in which one lives |
| Job loss | Recent loss of employment |
| Juvenile delinquency | Involvement in norm/law breaking before the age of 18 |
| Law abidance | There is a duty to follow and abide by the law |
| Law legitimacy | Respect for the government/law/authorities |
| Legal cynicism | Believing that laws are made to be broken |
| Life events | Social experience or change with psychological effects |
| Life satisfaction | Evaluation of quality of life |
| Machoism | Exaggerated masculinity |
| Marital status | Single/married |
| Mental health | Aggregate measure of undefined mental‐health conditions |
| Military service | Current/past service in military |
| Moral neutralizations | Justifications of deviant behaviors (e.g., drugs, violence etc.) |
| Need for closure | Need to reach conclusion/aversion toward ambiguity |
| Negative affect | Negative emotions (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)) |
| NSM contact | Contact with other radicals via new social media (NSM) |
| Obsessive passion | Passion for an activity that is consuming of one's life or identity |
| Online posting | Active posting of political/radical opinions/content online |
| Openness | Big five construct: Inventiveness/curiousness |
| Out‐group friendships | Friendships with members of out‐groups |
| Parental abuse | Physically abused by parents |
| Parental academics | Parental academic level achieved |
| Parental control | Degree of parental supervision exercised |
| Parental involvement | Parents show interest, praise, and are aware of whereabouts |
| Past activism | Engaged in legal, nonviolent behaviors in the name of a cause |
| Perceived discrimination | Perception of having been discriminated against |
| Perceived injustice | Feeling that the individual or group is treated unjustly |
| Personal strain | Loss of parents, loss of work, experienced traumatic event etc. |
| Personal trust | Believing that most people can be trusted |
| Physical health | General/overall health status |
| Police contact | Number of contacts with police in the previous 12‐month period |
| Political efficacy | Having influence or being represented in the political sphere |
| Political extremism | Far left/right politically |
| Political grievance | Opposition to foreign intervention in the Middle East |
| Political participation | Participation in political party, organization, activities |
| Political satisfaction | Satisfaction with current system of government |
| Positive affect | Positive emotions (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)) |
| Power Distance Orientation (PDO) | Acceptance of inequality between classes/hierarchical structures |
| Prayer frequency | Frequency of individual prayers |
| Previous incarcerations | Number of previous incarcerations for unspecified offences |
| Procedural justice | Treated (un)fairly by legal institutions |
| Psychopathy | Dark triad construct: Impaired empathy |
| PTSD | Post‐traumatic stress disorder/trauma |
| Radical attitudes | Support for or justification of radical violence in the name of a cause |
| Radical family | Family members with cognitive or behavioral radicalization |
| Radical media | Passive exposure to mediated, radical content |
| Religious upbringing | Raised in a practicing, religious home |
| Quest for significance | Seeking to attain/regain lost or absent personal significance |
| Realistic threat | Powerful out‐group threatening to in‐group survival |
| Religiosity | Importance of religion in daily life and activities |
| School bonding | Enjoying going to school and/or studying/attachment to school |
| Segregationist | Separation of people by ethnic group |
| Self‐control | Impulsivity, quick to anger |
| Self‐efficacy | Belief/confidence in capacity to achieve objectives |
| Self‐esteem (individual/public/group) | Self/public/group value |
| Self‐sacrifice | A willingness to sacrifice on behalf of group/cause |
| Similar peers | Proportion of friends of similar background |
| Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) | Desire for social dominance over others |
| Social support | Perceived/feelings of receiving adequate support from others |
| Socioeconomic status (SES) | Level of personal/household income |
| Student | The individual is a current student |
| Symbolic threat | Out‐group's influence threatening to in‐group's position |
| Teacher mistreatment | Feelings of being mistreated by educators |
| Thrill‐seeking/risk‐taking | Taking risks just for fun of it, without thinking of consequences |
| Time online | The number of hours spent on the internet |
| Uncertainty | Anxiety prior to confronting potentially harmful events |
| Unemployment | Lack of gainful employment |
| Violent media exposure | Passive exposure to mediated violence/violent content |
| West Vs. Islam | The West is trying to attack/dominate Islam/Islamic countries |
| Worship attendance | The frequency of attendance at places of worship |