Table 13.
Publication bias analysis
| Factor | r | k | T&F | r adjusted | 95% CI | Q | Egger's test |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β1 (p value) | |||||||
| Radical attitudes | |||||||
| Protective factors | |||||||
| Student | −.00 | 5 | 1 | −0.03 | −0.13, 0.08 | 56.95*** | −11.85 (.131) |
| Neuroticism | −.02 | 4 | 1 | −0.05 | −0.13, 0.03 | 40.94*** | 5.15 (.203) |
| SES | −.04** | 27 | 2 | −0.03** | −0.05, −0.01 | 256.44*** | 0.333 (.353) |
| Marital status | −.04*** | 11 | 2 | −0.04† | −0.06, −0.02 | 17.41 | −0.286 (.255) |
| Political efficacy | −.05 | 7 | 0 | − | − | − | 4.84 (.133) |
| Age | −.05** | 46 | 5 | −0.06* | −0.09, −0.03 | 1428.10*** | 1.22 (.169) |
| General trust | −.06** | 4 | 2 | −0.03† | −0.07, 0.01 | 16.82** | −1.84 (.048) |
| Education | −.07** | 30 | 6 | −0.09*** | −0.13, −0.05 | 1022.53*** | −2.02 (.058) |
| School performance | −.09** | 8 | 0 | − | − | − | −1.21 (.379) |
| Outgroup friends | −.09** | 3 | 2 | −0.11** | −0.15, −0.06 | 2.94 | 1.54 (.034) |
| Extraversion | −.10 | 4 | 1 | −0.14 | −0.30, 0.03 | 237.67*** | 4.03 (.401) |
| Parental academics | −.10*** | 4 | 2 | −0.07 | −0.13, −0.02 | 125.99*** | 2.33 (.280) |
| Openness | −.10† | 4 | 0 | − | − | − | 2.81 (.372) |
| Parental involvement | −.10*** | 12 | 0 | − | − | − | .462 (.420) |
| Self‐esteem (public) | −.11 | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −4.88 (.065) |
| Self‐esteem (group) | −.11 | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −5.26 (.069) |
| Social support | −.12*** | 7 | 0 | − | − | − | 1.92 (.098) |
| Conscientiousness | −.12*** | 4 | 1 | −0.11*** | −0.14, −0.09 | 4.67 | 1.15 (.305) |
| Parental control | −.12** | 4 | 1 | −0.13* | −0.20, −0.06 | 66.82*** | 3.07 (.359) |
| School bonding | −.13*** | 7 | 0 | − | − | − | 0.453 (.423) |
| Teacher bonding | −.13*** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | 0.394 (.468) |
| Agreeableness | −.13* | 4 | 0 | − | − | − | −2.23 (.390) |
| Political satisfaction | −.15** | 6 | 0 | − | − | − | −7.26 (.107) |
| Self‐esteem (personal) | −.17** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −3.12 (.212) |
| Institutional trust | −.17*** | 11 | 3 | −0.23*** | −0.34, −0.11 | 3235.45*** | −6.00 (.083) |
| Life satisfaction | −.19*** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | 0.010 (.499) |
| Law abidance | −.55*** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −3.47 (.405) |
| Risk factors | |||||||
| Depression | .00 | 10 | 0 | − | − | − | 0.712(.394) |
| Immigrant | .01 | 23 | 0 | − | − | − | −0.313 (.367) |
| 2nd gen immigrant | .01 | 11 | 3 | 0.02 | −0.01, 0.05 | 157.092*** | −0.091 (.481) |
| Political participation | .01 | 4 | 1 | 0.03 | −0.02, 0.07 | 11.782* | 3.12 (.167) |
| Life events | .02 | 9 | 0 | −0.63(.350) | |||
| Physical health | .02* | 4 | 2 | 0.03** | 0.01, 0.05 | 4.60 | −1.34 (.094) |
| Moved residence | .03 | 4 | 1 | 0.02 | −0.02, 0.06 | 22.19*** | 1.25 (.387) |
| Anxiety | .04† | 8 | 0 | − | − | − | 1.84(.156) |
| APD | .03 | 4 | 0 | − | − | − | 1.371 (.298) |
| Alcohol use | .04† | 5 | 0 | − | − | − | −0.515 (.437) |
| Religiosity | .05 | 19 | 5 | −0.02 | −0.08, 0.04 | 626.34*** | 1.235 (.306) |
| West Vs. Islam | .05*** | 3 | 2 | 0.06*** | 0.04, 0.08 | 3.08 | −3.61 (.209) |
| Unemployed | .05*** | 13 | 5 | 0.04*** | 0.02, 0.05 | 37.93*** | 1.139 (.028) |
| Welfare | .05*** | 9 | 0 | − | − | − | −.624 (.328) |
| Worship attendance | .06* | 13 | 0 | − | − | − | 2.05 (.136) |
| Uncertainty | .07** | 10 | 1 | 0.05* | 0.01, 0.10 | 46.75*** | 0.232 (.411) |
| In‐group identity | .07*** | 25 | 0 | − | − | − | 2.283 (.008) |
| Perceived injustice | .08* | 8 | 2 | 0.04 | −0.02, 0.11 | 62.54*** | 0.828 (.352) |
| Discrimination | .08*** | 21 | 1 | 0.08*** | 0.06, 0.10 | 78.24*** | −0.865 (.106) |
| Experienced violence | .07*** | 16 | 0 | − | − | − | −1.03 (.182) |
| Aggression | .09** | 5 | 0 | − | − | − | 2.33 (.191) |
| Family violence | .10*** | 5 | 1 | 0.10*** | 0.07, 0.13 | 13.14† | −1.31 (.261) |
| Males | .10*** | 56 | 1 | 0.10*** | 0.08, 0.12 | 635.61*** | .458(.703) |
| Online posting | .11*** | 4 | 0 | − | − | − | 1.43 (.328) |
| Indiv. Relative dep. | .11*** | 15 | 1 | 0.12*** | 0.07, 0.16 | 381.416 | 3.64(.043) |
| Drug use | .12* | 6 | 0 | −0.582 (.455) | |||
| Violent media | .12*** | 6 | 1 | 0.13*** | 0.08, 0.17 | 84.53*** | 1.08 (.393) |
| Personal strain | .13*** | 3 | 1 | 0.12*** | 0.08, 0.17 | .58 | 0.171 (.434) |
| Parental abuse | .13*** | 6 | 1 | 0.13*** | 0.09, 0.16 | 23.48** | 0.511 (.418) |
| Self‐efficacy | .13 | 5 | 0 | − | − | − | 5.43 (.327) |
| Anger | .14*** | 4 | 1 | 0.17*** | 0.09, 0.25 | 30.65*** | 2.01 (.099) |
| Prayer frequency | .14** | 5 | 0 | − | − | − | 3.32 (.163) |
| Significance quest | .14*** | 10 | 4 | 0.09** | 0.02, 0.16 | 43.04*** | 2.54 (.107) |
| Perceive discriminate | .15*** | 8 | 1 | 0.16*** | 0.11, 0.20 | 78.10*** | −3.23 (.138) |
| Political grievance | .15*** | 8 | 0 | − | − | − | 0.505 (.436) |
| Dual identity | .15*** | 7 | 2 | 0.12*** | 0.05, 0.18 | 50.82*** | 0.414 (.408) |
| Segregationist | .15† | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | 8.27 (.050) |
| Collect. Relative dep. | .16*** | 19 | 3 | 0.14*** | 0.10, 0.18 | 223.82*** | 0.245 (.434) |
| Disconnectedness | .16*** | 7 | 1 | 0.14*** | 0.06, 0.21 | 19.46** | 0.959 (.251) |
| Deviant peers | .17*** | 12 | 0 | − | − | − | −6.00 (.033) |
| Antidemocratic | .19*** | 8 | 2 | 0.17*** | 0.12. 0.21 | 101.87*** | −1.90 (.179) |
| Anomia | .19*** | 12 | 0 | − | − | − | −0.908 (.274) |
| SDO | .19† | 5 | 0 | − | − | − | 5.906 (.116) |
| Juv. delinquent | .20*** | 7 | 0 | − | − | − | 4.02 (.258) |
| Low integration | .20*** | 21 | 7 | 0.26*** | 0.17, 0.35 | 3546.51*** | 3.31 (.000) |
| Self‐sacrifice | .20*** | 6 | 2 | 0.25*** | 0.15, 0.34 | 36.20*** | −5.44 (.099) |
| Legitimacy | .22*** | 10 | 3 | 0.29*** | 0.18, 0.39 | 2379.61*** | 5.08 (.051) |
| Self‐control | .25*** | 8 | 0 | − | − | − | −4.59 (.050) |
| Authoritarianism | .25*** | 21 | 3 | 0.31*** | 0.20, 0.40 | 3047.83*** | 2.71 (.287) |
| Radical media | .26*** | 5 | 0 | − | − | − | 6.43 (.161) |
| Criminal history | .29*** | 4 | 0 | − | − | − | 2.57 (.230) |
| Police contact | .30*** | 6 | 0 | − | − | − | −4.55 (.197) |
| Thrill‐seeking | .31*** | 17 | 2 | 0.33*** | 0.24, 0.41 | 1761.33*** | 3.56 (.046) |
| Symbolic threat | .31*** | 6 | 2 | 0.34*** | 0.27, 0.40 | 17.14* | −0.24 (.438) |
| Similar peers | .31*** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | 3.43 (.166) |
| Moral neutralizations | .32*** | 15 | 1 | 0.33*** | 0.24, 0.42 | 1470.35*** | 7.73 (.008) |
| In‐group superiority | .34*** | 13 | 1 | 0.32*** | 0.23, 0.40 | 404.40*** | 1.51 (.287) |
| Realistic threat | .35*** | 4 | 2 | 0.41*** | 0.33, 0.48 | 15.27* | −0.29 (.018) |
| Political extremism | .37*** | 6 | 0 | − | − | − | 13.68(.007) |
| Life attachment | .41** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | 1.86 (.459) |
| Machoism | .42*** | 4 | 0 | − | − | − | .296 (.489) |
| Radical intentions | |||||||
| Protective factors | |||||||
| Education | −.03 | 12 | 1 | −0.03 | −0.08, 0.02 | 34.43*** | 0.11 (.459) |
| SES | −.03 | 11 | 2 | −0.06 | −0.11, 0.00 | 30.66*** | 1.18 (.176) |
| Age | −.08** | 25 | 0 | − | − | − | −0.79 (.244) |
| Outgroup friendship | −.10 | 3 | 2 | −0.12** | −0.17, −0.07 | 4.34 | 1.59 (.182) |
| Agreeableness | −.12*** | 7 | 3 | −0.13*** | −0.15, −0.11 | 8.14 | 1.87 (.029) |
| Conscientiousness | −.13*** | 7 | 0 | − | − | − | 0.25 (.449) |
| Openness | −.16*** | 10 | 0 | − | − | − | 0.553 (.416) |
| Immigrant | −.22*** | 8 | 1 | −0.23 | −0.41, −0.09 | 130.62*** | −4.56 (.037) |
| Risk factors | |||||||
| Uncertainty | .05** | 5 | 2 | 0.03† | −0.00, 0.07 | 8.94 | 4.06 (.010) |
| Neuroticism | .07*** | 8 | 2 | 0.05** | 0.02. 0.09 | 23.29** | 3.49 (.028) |
| APD | .08** | 3 | 2 | 0.07** | 0.02, 0.12 | .949 | 0.612 (.019) |
| SDO | .09 | 5 | 1 | 0.13 | −0.08, 0.32 | 129.81*** | −8.65 (.234) |
| External efficacy | .09 | 4 | 0 | − | − | − | 7.57 (.068) |
| Males | .10*** | 28 | 3 | 0.09*** | 0.04, 0.13 | 165.20*** | −1.55 (.045) |
| Significance quest. | .11*** | 4 | 1 | 0.12*** | 0.07, 0.17 | 4.55 | −0.964 (.332) |
| Extraversion | .12*** | 8 | 0 | − | − | − | −0.363 (.426) |
| Indv. Relative dep. | .14† | 4 | 2 | 0.20*** | 0.09, 0.30 | 18.58*** | −2.90 (.110) |
| Positive affect | .16** | 4 | 1 | 0.18*** | 0.09, 0.27 | 8.13 | −7.93 (.326) |
| Harmonious passion | .16* | 5 | 0 | − | − | − | −5.53 (.327) |
| Low integration | .18*** | 9 | 0 | − | − | − | 1.70 (.085) |
| Self‐esteem | .20* | 6 | 0 | − | − | − | 2.65 (.094) |
| Dark triad | .20** | 6 | 2 | 0.11 | −0.03, 0.25 | 258.19*** | 9.46 (.132) |
| PDO | .23** | 5 | 1 | 0.25*** | 0.15, 0.34 | 27.78*** | −2.48 (.261) |
| In‐group connect. | .23*** | 6 | 1 | 0.21*** | 0.12, 0.30 | 15.59* | 10.16 (.015) |
| Anomia | .25*** | 6 | 2 | 0.29*** | 0.19, 0.39 | 58.81*** | −10.45 (.029) |
| In‐group identity | .25*** | 15 | 1 | 0.27*** | 0.17, 0.36 | 235.62*** | 3.56 (.081) |
| Realistic threat | .26*** | 6 | 0 | − | − | − | .359 (.449) |
| Perceived injustice | .28*** | 13 | 0 | − | − | − | 5.49 (.020) |
| Symbolic threat | .29*** | 6 | 2 | 0.38*** | 0.20, 0.54 | 188.75*** | 3.23 (.148) |
| Coll. Relative dep. | .36*** | 17 | 2 | 0.39*** | 0.30, 0.47 | 167.54*** | 1.57 (.197) |
| Moral neutralizations | .36*** | 8 | 0 | − | − | − | −4.53 (.297) |
| In‐group superiority | .37*** | 5 | 1 | 0.39*** | 0.32, 0.46 | 11.70† | −1.81 (.147) |
| Anger | .40*** | 12 | 0 | − | − | − | 6.36 (.014) |
| Commitment | .43*** | 9 | 0 | − | − | − | −9.63 (.000) |
| Activist intent | .44*** | 18 | 1 | 0.46*** | 0.36, 0.54 | 349.71*** | −4.22 (.111) |
| Negative affect | .47*** | 4 | 0 | − | − | − | −21.39 (.123) |
| Radical attitudes | .48*** | 12 | 3 | 0.43*** | 0.33, 0.52 | 318.75*** | −0.470 (.430) |
| Obsessive passion | .50*** | 5 | 1 | 0.45*** | 0.26, 0.61 | 66.08*** | −7.45 (.354) |
| Identity fusion | .52*** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −20.58 (.230) |
| Radical behaviors | |||||||
| Protective factors | |||||||
| Marital status | −.03 | 6 | 0 | − | − | − | −1.64 (.113) |
| Education | −.04 | 13 | 0 | − | − | − | −4.42 (.102) |
| Parental involvement | −.06*** | 4 | 1 | −0.06*** | −0.09, −0.04 | − | 0.252 (.464) |
| Age | −.10* | 8 | 0 | − | − | − | −2.92 (.226) |
| School bonding | −.11*** | 4 | 1 | −0.11*** | −0.12, −0.09 | .97 | −0.220 (.420) |
| Law abidance | −.22*** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −1.50 (.358) |
| Risk factors | |||||||
| Bullied | .04*** | 4 | 1 | 0.04*** | 0.02, 0.05 | 1.30 | −1.03 (.137) |
| Immigrant | .05 | 5 | 2 | 0.12* | 0.02, 0.21 | 162.51*** | −8.45 (.081) |
| Welfare | .06* | 6 | 0 | − | − | − | 0.643 (.418) |
| Abused | .07*** | 5 | 2 | 0.06*** | 0.05, 0.08 | 5.30 | 1.38 (.057) |
| Experienced violence | .11*** | 5 | 1 | 0.10*** | 0.06, 0.14 | 20.93*** | 2.32 (.232) |
| Personal injustice | .15*** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −2.84 (.240) |
| Unemployed | .19*** | 7 | 0 | − | − | − | 8.29 (.083) |
| Thrill‐seeking | .19*** | 6 | 1 | 0.20*** | 0.17, 0.23 | 25.52** | 2.17 (.237) |
| Anger | .20 | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −28.12 (.309) |
| Self‐control | .28*** | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −27.84 (.228) |
| Deviant peers | .30** | 4 | 1 | 0.35*** | 0.17, 0.51 | 395.75*** | 17.75 (.153) |
| Radical attitudes | .30*** | 11 | 1 | 0.32*** | 0.21, 0.42 | 988.67*** | 2.23 (.379) |
| Past military | .33† | 3 | 0 | − | − | − | −26.91 (.204) |
| Criminal history | .35** | 4 | 1 | 0.42*** | 0.17, 0.62 | 658.46*** | 6.41 (.350) |
| Gender | .39** | 7 | 0 | − | − | − | 14.54 (.306) |