Table 1.
Characteristics of the study populationa
| Variables | Median (IQR) or n (%) |
|---|---|
| Maternal characteristics | |
| Sociodemographic | |
| Age, y | 22 (20, 24) |
| Monthly household income, INRb | 6000 (4500, 9000) |
| <6000 INR, n (%) | 161 (44) |
| Standard of living index | |
| 0–22, n (%) | 127 (35) |
| 23–28, n (%) | 124 (34) |
| 29–64, n (%) | 115 (31) |
| Gestational age at randomisation, weeks | 10.6 (9.1, 12.6) |
| Parity | |
| Nulliparous, n (%) | 236 (64) |
| Primiparous or multiparous, n (%) | 130 (36) |
| Anthropometric | |
| Weight, kg | 46.7 (41.6, 53.0) |
| Height, cm | 153 (149, 157) |
| <150 cm, n (%) | 102 (28) |
| Body mass index, kg/m2 | 19.6 (18.1, 22.5) |
| <18.5 kg/m2, n (%) | 114 (31) |
| Mid-upper arm circumference, cm | 23.0 (21.5, 25.5) |
| Biochemical, at enrolmentc | |
| Haemoglobin, g/dl | 11.7 (10.8, 12.6) |
| Hb <11.0 g/dl | 109 (30) |
| Hb <8.5 g/dl | 19 (5) |
| Hb <7.0 g/dl | 4 (1) |
| Serum ferritin (SF), μg/l | 16.2 (7.4, 36.4) |
| <30.0 μg/l | 234 (68) |
| <15.0 μg/l | 166 (48) |
| <12.0 μg/l | 139 (40) |
| Serum ferritin (BRINDA adjusted), μg/l | 12.4 (5.7, 28.3) |
| <30.0 μg/l | 268 (78) |
| <15.0 μg/l | 202 (59) |
| <12.0 μg/l | 166 (48) |
| Serum ferritin (Thurnham adjusted), μg/l | 14.9 (6.7, 33.5) |
| <30.0 μg/l | 241 (70) |
| <15.0 μg/l | 174 (51) |
| <12.0 μg/l | 147 (43) |
| Iron deficiency anaemia | |
| Anaemia and SF <15.0 μg/l | 81 (23) |
| Anaemia and SF <12.0 μg/l | 75 (22) |
| C-reactive protein (CRP), mg/l | 1.7 (0.9, 3.7) |
| CRP >1.0 mg/l | 238 (69) |
| CRP >5.0 mg/l | 59 (17) |
| Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), g/l | 0.77 (0.66, 0.90) |
| AGP >1.0 g/l | 39 (11) |
| CRP >5.0mg/L and AGP >1.0 g/l | 21 (6) |
| Hepcidin, ng/ml | 4.6 (1.9, 13.2) |
| Anaemia of inflammationd | 6 (2) |
| Hematocrit, % | 35.0 (32.4, 37.4) |
| Mean corpuscular volume, fl | 83 (78, 87) |
| Plasma vitamin B12, pmol/l | 149 (110, 204) |
| <150.0 pmol/l, n (%) | 180 (51) |
| Plasma MMA, μmol/l | 0.47 (0.28, 0.67) |
| >0.26 μmol/l, n (%) | 273 (76) |
| Plasma tHcy, μmol/l | 9.23 (5.75, 15.08) |
| >15.0 μmol/l, n (%) | 91 (25) |
| Erythrocyte folate, nmol/l | 387 (291, 496) |
| <340.0 nmol/l, n (%) | 136 (38) |
| Pregnancy outcomes | |
| Males, n (%) | 122 (47.5) |
| Birth weight, kg | 2.8 (2.5, 3.0) |
| Low birth weight (<2.5 kg), n (%) | 38 (15.1) |
| Gestational age at birth, weeks | 39.4 (38.3, 40.1) |
| Preterm (<37 weeks), n (%) | 33 (12.8) |
| Preterm and low birth weight, n (%) | 15 (6.0) |
| Small for gestational agee, n (%) | 85 (33.9) |
| Infant outcomes | |
| Haemoglobin, g/dl | 10.9 (9.9, 11.7) |
| Anaemia (<11.0 g/dl), n (%) | 37 (50.7) |
| Length, cm | 47.0 (46.0, 49.0) |
| Length-for-age z-score (LAZ) | −1.3 (−2.2, −0.3) |
| LAZ < −2 | 65 (28.9) |
| Weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) | −1.0 (−1.6, −0.5) |
| WAZ < −2 | 30 (12.0) |
| Weight-for-length z-score (WLZ) | −0.3 (−1.5, 0.8) |
| WLZ < −2 | 28 (15.1) |
| BMI z-score (BMIZ) | −0.4 (−1.6, 0.6) |
| BMIZ < −2 | 35 (15.6) |
| Ponderal Index, g/cm3 | 0.027 (0.024, 0.030) |
| Head circumference, cm | 33.5 (32.5, 34.5) |
| Chest circumference, cm | 31.5 (30.0, 32.5) |
| Waist circumference, cm | 28.0 (26.0, 30.0) |
| Hip circumference, cm | 28.0 (26.5, 29.7) |
| Mid-upper arm circumference, cm | 9.5 (9.0, 10.5) |
| Biceps skinfold, mm | 4.0 (3.4, 4.8) |
| Triceps skinfold, mm | 5.3 (4.6, 6.2) |
| Subscapular skinfold, mm | 5.2 (4.4, 6.2) |
a
Values are median (IQR) and n (%); n = 366 mothers, n = 258 infants
b
100 INR was equivalent to approximately US$2 at the time the study was conducted
c
Enrolment: ≤14 weeks gestation
d
Anaemia of inflammation was defined as anaemia (Hb < 11.0 g/dl) + serum ferritin ≥ 15.0 μg/l + (either CRP > 5.0 mg/l or AGP > 1.0 g/l)
e
Small for gestational age (SGA) was defined as birth weight < 10th percentile of the gestational age, using INTERGROWTH reference [17]