Table 2.
Mean Raw Scores† (SD) and Effect Sizes of Olfactory and Neuropsychological Measures
| Neuropsychological Domain |
Test | Test Index Used | Psychosis (n = 63) |
Controls (n = 63) |
Effect Size‡ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Olfactory Functioning | SS-ODT | Odor discrimination accuracy | 9.69 (2.41)b | 10.83 (2.41)b | −0.48 |
| SS-OIT | Odor identification accuracy | 11.06 (2.23)b | 12.15 (2.23)b | −0.49 | |
| Processing Speed | GPB | Mean completion time over two trials bilaterally |
88.24 (16.65)a | 68.59 (16.65)a | −1.18 |
| PCT | Sum of letter completions | 28.89 (8.47) | 33.70 (8.47) | −0.57 | |
| Sum of pattern completions | 38.48(8.47) | 44.72 (8.47) | −0.74 | ||
| Attention and Working Memory | DS | Sum of longest forward and backward span | 10.46 (2.30) | 11.78 (2.30) | −0.57 |
| BTA | Sum of total letters and numbers correct | 13.25 (3.70) | 16.41 (3.71) | −0.85 | |
| Auditory-verbal Learning/Memory | HVLT | Total words learned (HVLT Learning) | 22.24 (4.96) | 26.28 (4.96) | −0.81 |
| Delayed word recall (HVLT delay) | 7.17 (2.43) | 9.38 (2.43) | −0.91 | ||
| Visuospatial Learning/Memory | BVMT | Total figures learned (BVMT Learning) | 23.43 (6.19) | 28.04 (6.19) | −0.75 |
| Delayed figure recall (BVMT delay) | 8.98 (2.17) | 10.61 (2.17) | −0.75 | ||
| Ideational Fluency | CIFA-VF | Letter-guided verbal fluency | 25.92 (8.86) | 32.89 (8.86) | −0.79 |
| Category-guided verbal fluency | 40.17 (11.23) | 48.89 (11.23) | −0.78 | ||
| CIFA-DF | Novel designs produced | 12.36 (6.62) | 17.85 (6.62) | −0.83 | |
| Executive Functioning | MWCST | Number of category sorts | 5.00 (1.16) | 5.70 (1.16) | −0.60 |
| Number of perseverative errors | 4.89 (4.44)a | 2.46 (4.44)a | −0.55 |
Note. Sniffin’ Sticks Odor Identification and Discrimination Identification Test (SS-OIT and SS-ODT; Hummel et al., 1997; Kobal et al., 1996), Grooved Pegboard Test (GPB; Klove, 1963), Salthouse Perceptual Comparison Test (PCT; Salthouse, 1996), Digit Span Forward and Backward (DS; Wechsler, 1956), Brief Test of Attention (BTA; Schretlen, 1989), Hopkins Verbal Learning Test – Revised (HVLT; Brandt, 2001), Brief Visuospatial Memory Test – Revised (BVMT; Benedict, 1997), Verbal Fluency (VF) and Design Fluency (DF) subtests of the Calibrated Ideational Fluency Assessment (CIFA; Schretlen & Vannorsdall, 2010), Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (MWCST; Nelson, 1976)
Mean raw scores and standard deviations presented are the estimated marginal means after adjusting for age, sex, and education
Cohen’s d
Larger scores denote poorer performances
Olfactory scores were adjusted for the amount of cigarettes per day in addition to age, sex, and education.