Food donation as a strategy to reduce food waste in an emerging Latin American country: a case study in Uruguay

Abstract

Abstract

Food donation has expanded globally and has become a common form of food assistance in emerging countries. However, research on food donation experiences in these settings is still scarce.

Purpose

In this context, the objectives of the present work were as follows: (i) to explore the views of Uruguayan stakeholders on food donation as a strategy to reduce food waste, (ii) to identify barriers and enablers for food donation in Uruguay, and (iii) to explore the organizational characteristics of Uruguayan food banks.

Methods

A qualitative approach based on two data collection strategies was used: documentary content analysis of official governmental documents and in-depth semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders related to food waste and food donations in Uruguay.

Results

Food donation emerged as a central strategy for food waste reduction in the view of Uruguayan stakeholders, mainly because it was perceived as an efficient strategy to reduce food insecurity. The complexity of food donation was acknowledged by Uruguayan stakeholders and who identified several barriers for its implementation related to economic considerations, the characteristics of the donated products, legal and commercial considerations, and organizational characteristics of food banks.

Conclusion

Although most barriers were aligned with results from previous studies conducted in developed countries, some specificities to the Uruguayan context were also identified. Clear and detailed legal frameworks to ensure that the donated products reach the target population along with nutritional requirements for the foods to be donated were deemed necessary.

Introduction

Efficient waste management strategies are one of the key elements for sustainable development [1]. Food waste has been identified as a priority waste stream due to its negative social, economic, and environmental negative impacts [2]. Food waste can be defined as “the decrease in quantity or quality of food along the supply chain” [3].

International commitments to reduce food waste were included in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Goal 12 aims to “Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns,” setting as target (12.3) to halve per capita global food waste by 2030 [4]. The most favorable option for the reduction of food waste is prevention, that is, avoiding the generation of avoidable food waste throughout food production and consumption [2]. However, considering that there will always be a considerable amount of food waste that is unavoidable, effective management strategies are also needed to ensure that surplus food that is acceptable for human consumption is actually used to feed people [3].

The most recent estimates indicate that approximately 14% of food produced globally is lost in the first stages of the food supply chain, before reaching the retail stage [3]. Although accurate global estimations are still lacking, food waste at wholesale, retailing, and consumption stages has been reported to represent approximately a 17% of total food waste, particularly in high-income countries [3–9]. Food waste in these last stages of the food supply chain is mainly caused by a mismatch between offer and demand or due to insufficient quality according to retailers’ and/or consumers’ stringent quality standards [10–13]. Thus, a considerable share of the food wasted in these last stages of the food supply chain is still appropriate for human consumption [14, 15]. Such food has been referred to as “surplus food” to signal it is caused by oversupply and over-purchase [16] and further categorized into different types of “suboptimal food” [17]. Food supply chain actors have begun to establish initiatives to avoid surplus and suboptimal food to end as waste, among others via alternative retail chains including food banks [18]. In particular, donation of food to the most vulnerable sectors of the population is one of several strategies that have been proposed to manage unavoidable food waste [19].

Although food donation traces back to the thirteenth century, its modern concept was established in the late 1960s by the first food banks and food rescue programs in the USA [13]. Food banks are key organizations for food donations, as they collect donations, store them, and subsequently distribute them to the most vulnerable sectors of the population through charitable organizations [20]. Food donation does not only contribute to reducing food waste but also has the potential to positively influence food security by improving access to food [21]. However, several studies conducted have identified organizational characteristics of the food banks and bureaucratic procedures that determine the ability of food donation to effectively improve access to adequate and nutritious foods; e.g., [13, 14, 20–23]. Previous studies have identified key enablers to improve the nutritional quality of the foods provided by food banks, including the existence of an organization nutrition policy, the availability of infrastructure, equipment, and staff for handling fresh foods (mainly fruits and vegetables), and the existence of relationships between food banks and local producers of fruits and vegetables [20, 22, 24].

Although food donation emerged in high-income countries [25], it has expanded globally and has become a common form of food assistance in emerging countries [5]. However, research on food donation experiences in these settings is still scarce. An in-depth understanding of barriers and enablers for food donation in emerging countries can provide policy insights to improve their ability to contribute to food security and nutrition. This is particularly relevant in the context of the social and economic crisis generated by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has led to an increase in poverty and food insecurity [26]. Latin America has been the region of the world most severely affected by the pandemic, from both health and economic perspectives [27, 28]. Poverty in the region increased from 30.5% in 2019 to 33.7% in 2020, reaching the highest value over the last decade [29].

Context and objectives of the study

The study was conducted in Uruguay, an emerging high-income country with 3.5 million inhabitants, located in the south-eastern part of South America and characterized by a high degree of urbanization. According to preliminary estimations, 10% of the food available in the country is lost or wasted [30]. In 2016, a cross-sector working group was created in the country to develop and implement strategies to reduce food losses and waste along the food supply chain [31]. However, advances so far have been limited. In 2016, a proposal for a new law about food donation was presented at the Uruguayan Parliament by one of the deputies, in an attempt to contribute to the reduction of food waste in the country [32]. The law proposal imposed the food industry and retailers from wasting foods appropriate for human consumption and established the obligation of donating such foods without cost to food banks or other organizations that provide assistance to people living under poverty conditions [32]. Although the proposition was discussed at the Deputy Chamber of the Uruguayan Parliament during 2016 and 2017, it was not approved. In 2020, the law proposition was presented again in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic [33], given the pandemic led to a 3% increase in poverty during 2020 [34]. The law proposition has not been approved yet.

In this context, the objectives of the present work were as follows: (i) to explore the views of Uruguayan stakeholders on food donation as a strategy to reduce food waste, (ii) to identify barriers and enablers for food donation in Uruguay, and (iii) to explore the organizational characteristics of Uruguayan food banks. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study exploring stakeholders’ views as well as barriers and enablers for food donation in an emerging country.

Materials and methods

A qualitative approach based on two data collection strategies was used: (i) documentary content analysis of official governmental documents and (ii) in-depth semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders related to food waste and food donations in Uruguay. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Chemistry (Universidad de la República, Uruguay) under number 101900–000,673-17.

Documentary analysis data

The stenographic version of the discussions held at the Uruguayan Parliament about the two law propositions about food donation presented in 2016 and 2020 was analyzed. The first law proposition was presented in March 2016 at the Special Commission of Population and Development of the Chamber of Deputies. The proposition was discussed during eleven sessions between April 2016 and October 2017, where the following stakeholders were invited to provide comments: Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Social Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Husbandry and Fishing, FAO representatives in Uruguay, the Uruguayan Industry Chamber, the Uruguayan Association of Supermarkets, the Uruguayan Food Bank, and a National Union of Workers.

The second law proposition was presented in April 2020 to the Commission of Public Health of the Chamber of Senators. The proposition was discussed during nine sessions between April and November 2020, where the following stakeholders were invited to provide comments: Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Social Development, State Government Conference, Uruguayan Association of Supermarkets, Network of Shared Foods, Uruguayan Food Bank, and CanastasUY (non-governmental organization).

In-depth interviews: respondents and interview guide

Eight in-depth interviews with key stakeholders involved in food waste and food donation were conducted during 2020: two senators, members of the Commission of Public Health of the Chamber of Senators; a representative from the Food Agency of the local government of Montevideo (capital city of Uruguay); a representative from FAO; a representative from the largest supermarket chamber in Uruguay; and three representatives from Uruguayan food banks. Interviews were based on a semi-structured interview guide which included key questions and follow-up probing questions. First, the interview guide introduced the topic by exploring participants’ perceptions about food waste and their suggested strategies to reduce food waste in Uruguay. Then, several questions were asked to explore perceptions about food donation, and barriers and enablers for food donation. Interviews with representatives from food banks also included questions about organizational aspects. The question guide is presented in the Appendix.

Interviews lasted between 30 and 60 min and were conducted by an interviewer with a background in social sciences. Interviews were audio-recorded and verbatim transcribed. Written informed consent was obtained.

Data analysis

Data from the interviews and parliamentary discussions were analyzed using content analysis based on a deductive-inductive approach [35]. First, fragments of the interviews and documents related to the three main themes were searched for: (i) views on food donation, (ii) barriers and enablers to food donation in the country, and iii) organizational characteristics of the food banks. Within each of the themes, an inductive approach was used to identify categories as they emerged when reading the documents. One of the co-authors who conducted interviews performed an initial coding of the data, which was independently revised by two senior researchers. Disagreements between researchers were resolved through an open discussion. Analysis was performed in Spanish, and representative quotes were selected to illustrate major categories and translated into English.

The organizational characteristics of the food banks were analyzed considering the framework proposed by Campbell et al. [20]: culture, capacity, and practices. Culture encompasses staff attitudes and knowledge, and managerial commitment; capacity relates to available resources, whereas practices refers to the use of those resources.

Results

Through documentary content analysis of official governmental documents and in-depth semi-structured interviews, the present research explored the views of Uruguayan stakeholders on food donation as a strategy to mitigate food waste. Perceived barriers and enablers for food donation in Uruguay were identified, which were related to economic considerations, the characteristics of the donated products and the legal and commercial consequences of food donation, as summarized in Fig. 1. Organizational characteristics of food banks contributed to reinforcing or overcoming barriers and enablers to food donation. In the following, results related to the three main themes addressed in the research are presented in detail.

Fig. 1.

Barriers and enablers for food donation in Uruguay

The view of Uruguayan stakeholders on food donation as a strategy to mitigate food waste

Food waste was regarded as an important issue in the country due to its negative impact on food security. Interviewees stressed that a reduction in food waste could contribute to reduce food insecurity in the country, as exemplified in the following quotes:

“There are people suffering from hunger, severe hunger, and food does not reach them because there is something out of balance. And what happens? A very high percentage of food is wasted...”

“[...] it is clear that by reducing waste, food can be used for social food policies. It is clear that reducing food waste is positive, right? That is the only effect I can think of”

References to sustainability and the environmental impact of food waste were not frequent. However, some of the interviewees mentioned the burden posed by food waste to solid waste management. Currently, a Waste Management National Plan is open for public consultation [36] aiming to improve production and consumers’ practices at municipal landfill sites in order to reduce the environmental burden associated to these practices. Food waste reduction and food disposal practices have been acknowledged as strategic lines of work.

When asked about strategies to reduce food waste in the country, interviewees mainly referred to management strategies of unavoidable waste, i.e., strategies to ensure that surplus food that is still acceptable for human consumption is actually consumed. Food donation emerged as central strategy in all the interviews. In the stenographic version of the discussions of the law propositions on food donation at the Uruguayan Parliament, a general positive attitude towards food donation was observed in 2016 and 2020. Parliamentarians and stakeholders stressed the importance of the strategy to the reduction of food waste and its potential contribution to the reduction of food security and hunger, as exemplified in the following quotes:

“I want to congratulate the deputy (for the law proposal) [...] I think the country should be proud to have representatives concerned with the institutionalization of such an important practice (as food donation) […] nowadays non-governmental organizations have taken the initiative in this type of activity. The idea of institutionalizing it is very important...”

“We believe - and dream - that it is possible to eliminate food insecurity in Uruguay by recovering those foods that are wasted.”

However, several stakeholders stressed that the law proposition on food donation would only have a limited impact on food waste, as it did not consider all the steps of the food supply chain. In this sense, one of the stakeholders stressed that according to preliminary estimations food waste in the retailing and consumption stages only represent a minority of the total amount of food wasted in the country:¹

“In the last stages of the food supply chain food waste is around 11%. In the consumption stage we only have 10% and in retail and distribution 8-9%. The main problem is not there.”

In a similar vein, representatives from the Uruguayan Supermarket Association stressed that supermarkets do not discard a large proportion of products, as they usually have take-back agreements that allow them to return products close to their expiration date to manufacturers and importers. They stressed the need to include food importers within the scope of the regulation. In addition, one of the food banks stressed the need to also include fruit and vegetable producers within the scope of the law:

“Supermarkets have agreements with our suppliers to return products […] the industry can have more surpluses than we do. Importers receive the merchandise from abroad and when it is about to expire they have no other option but to destroy it, so it would be good if they could have this1option too.”

“The regulation does not include produce left in the field. That is a major weakness of the project […] especially considering that, according to FAO, approximately 60% of the food loss and waste in the supply chain of fruit and vegetables occurs in the production and harvest steps.”

Barriers and enablers for food donation in Uruguay

Despite their positive view about food donation, stakeholders recognized the complexity of the topic and identified three main barriers for its implementation. Figure 1 presents an overview of the barriers, which could be grouped into three main groups: (i) Economic considerations, (ii) Safety and nutritional characteristics of the donated foods, (iii) Legal and commercial consequences of food donation. Potential enablers that could overcome each of the barriers were also identified.

Economic considerations

The most frequently mentioned barrier to food donation was related to its associated cost. Stakeholders recognized that food donation implied costs for donors and that many times it is cheaper and easier for both the industry and retailers to simply destroy expired food products (Table 1).

Table 1.

Barriers and potential enablers for food donation in Uruguay identified in the documentary content analysis and in-depth interview transcripts (n = 8)

Barrier type	Category	Examples of quotes	Enabler	Example of quotes
Economic considerations	Cost for donors	Donation is not free […] it ends up being an additional cost for the company. Although the objective of the norm is to generate an impact on society” “Donation can be more expensive than the destruction of the product	Tax exemption	One of the financing mechanisms we have thought about is cooperation at company level. Costs associated with final disposal of their products can be allocated to sustaining the activity (food donation) In some countries tax exemption has been implemented to give them peace of mind and help them with the costs (associated with food donation)
	Cost for food banks	The law proposed states that the food would be delivered at no cost to the beneficiaries […] a very noble option but it is not considering the problem of the costs associated with management. NGOs would have to be responsible for the collection and storage including the cost of refrigeration, the logistics of collection and then the distribution	Nominal fee	Organizations pay a contribution to cover operating costs so that we can make our work economically sustainable. However, this contribution paid by organizations is up to five times lower than the cost that it would imply for them to buy the same food at the wholesale market
Characteristics of donated products	Food safety	We will try to outline the dangers that this practice could entail […] As Food Department of the Ministry of Public Health, our central concern focuses on the safety of the foods involved, and how this surplus donation system could imply a risk to health Another problem is related to the cold chain […] once we deliver the food, we must be careful with the cold chain, because we can generate a problem, threatening food safety	Food safety regulations applied to receptors	It seems illogical that companies that handle food are inspected and regulated, while organizations that are responsible for recovering and distributing donations are not
	Date labelling	The text is confusing when it refers to products not suitable for sale that can be consumed […] Because in Uruguay there is only one date, the expiration date Expired products cannot be donated. Only products that are suitable for consumption, products within their shelf life, those that are marketable	Changes in shelf life date system	It would be easier if all foods had two (expiration) dates […] products between those two dates would automatically be able to go through this donation system, which seems quite reasonable There are certain food categories that allow a double date. There are other foods that do not […] products where safety and quality go very close together are difficult to differentiate
	Nutritional quality	What are the main products wasted at a large retailer?They are usually not fresh or minimally processed but ultra-processed products — many of them with very long shelf lives — which have experienced the highest growth in sales. In the last eight or ten years, we see that consumption of sugary beverages and ultra-processed products have increased more than 100% […] they pose a great risk to health Will the destination of those products be food banks for the poor? We have a huge risk […] We will fill them up with unhealthy foods. So, in addition to being poor, they are going to eat products that are harmful for their health	Nutritional requirements for donated foods	As officers in charge of enforcing food safety, we could accept (to include) up to processed foods (within the scope of the law), but we advise against the inclusion of ultra-processed foods We request protection to the most vulnerable population, children, adolescents and pregnant women, by prohibiting donations of ultra-processed products and beverages with a high salt or sugar content when targeted at these groups The first recommendation would be to have a protocol for the evaluation of food donations, similar to the one developed by the Ministry of Social Development […] ultra-processed products high in nutrients associated with obesity and non-communicable diseases cannot be accepted
Legal and commercial consequences	Civil liability	Until it [liability protection] is in place, for many it would be easier to pay to have their food destroyed than to take a risk	Good Samaritan laws	The consideration of this issue made it possible to implement this initiative in Canada, the United States, or Argentina and to generate social impact. It gave peace of mind that there would be no civil liability to the private party that made the donation
	Illegal commerce	In recent years we have chosen to refer products directly to supplier companies, whether importers or manufacturers, to eliminate the packaging so that it cannot return to the market Many times, we have detected the creation of an informal market channel, a black market, where products end up being adulterated, because the expiration date is erased	Changes in food packaging	In recent years we have chosen to refer products directly to supplier companies, whether importers or manufacturers, to eliminate the packaging so that it cannot return to the market
			Selection of products	Depending on the product and quantities, we need to make sure the product can be consumed within the remaining shelf life within the recipient organization or family, leaving no room for illegal commerce
			Trust building	What happened? It became easier when they [donors] became acquainted with us, they were open to everything we said. For example, that the merchandise was not going to be resold

Representatives from food banks also referred to the costs associated with food donations. They stressed that according to the law proposition, food banks would have to cover the costs associated with the management of food donations. However, they stated that food banks usually do not have funding and rely on voluntary work. They indicated that food companies and retailers need to pay for destroying surplus products. Thus, they stated that the food waste proposition would pass the costs associated with handling expired products from food companies and retailers to food banks (Table 1).

Two approaches were proposed to cover the costs associated with the activities developed by food banks. In the first approach, donors (food companies and retailers) would cover the costs associated with the collection and distribution of the donated products, i.e., instead of paying for the destruction or disposal of expired products, they would pay the expenses of the food donation process. Parliamentarians suggested the use of economic incentives such as tax exemptions to food companies and retailers to compensate for the extra costs associated with food donation. However, references to specific taxes were not provided (Table 1).

The second approach suggested by representatives from food banks involved asking beneficiary organizations to pay a minimum price for the products they receive. The price would be much lower to the commercial value of the products, involving savings for the beneficiary organizations (Table 1).

Characteristics of the donated foods

Food safety concerns emerged as a major barrier for food donation. Several stakeholders stressed the need to assure the safety of the donated products, particularly when dealing with refrigerated products.

Governmental stakeholders stated that Uruguayan regulations only specify one date label, which makes it not possible to identify products that are still appropriate for human consumption after expiration. For this reason, they stated that it would not be possible to donate expired products (Table 1).

Stakeholders proposed the inclusion of both expiration date (based on food safety) and best before date (based on sensory quality) on food packages to facilitate donation. In that case, they stated that the law proposition could specify that products could be donated after the best before date but before their expiration date (Table 1). One of the stakeholders stated that some products would not be able to carry both dates, as they experienced microbiological alterations that pose risks to their safety (Table 1).

A second issue raised by representatives of the Ministry of Public Health and Ministry of Social development expressed concerns over the nutritional quality of the donated products. They stated that most of the products donated to food banks and other organizations would be ultra-processed2 with excessive content of nutrients associated with non-communicable diseases, which could contribute to increase their consumption among the most vulnerable sectors of the population (Table 1).

The Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Social Development stressed the need to introduce dispositions related to the nutritional characteristics of the foods that could be donated. The Ministry of Health suggested the exclusion of ultra-processed products from the law, whereas the Ministry of Social Development suggested the prohibition of donations of products with ultra-processed products with high content of sugar, fat and/or sodium products to children, adolescents, and pregnant women. In 2020, the Ministry of Social Development referred to a protocol developed for donations to the State in the context of the pandemic, which stated that the Uruguayan State could not accept donations of ultra-processed products featuring nutritional warning labels, implemented in the country in 2020 to highlight products with excessive content of nutrients associated with non-communicable diseases (Table 1).

Legal and commercial consequences of food donation

The legal and commercial consequences of food donation also emerged as a relevant barrier. One of the key points was related to the legal responsibility of donors. Private stakeholders stressed the need to release donors from the liability for damages that may occur as a consequence of the consumption of the donated products. Otherwise, companies and retailers would refuse to donate their products as they could be responsible for negative effects caused by products that are no longer under their supervision. The inclusion of references to Good Samaritan laws3 on the law proposition was identified as the key strategy to overcome this barrier (Table 1).

Governmental stakeholders stressed the need to clearly specify who would be responsible for assuring the food safety of the donated products. They indicated that it would not be reasonable to have strict regulations and controls for food manufacturers and not for the organizations in charge of receiving and distributing donations. The Ministry of Health mentioned the need to have information about how food banks worked and the procedures they used to receive, handle, and distribute foods (Table 1).

Food banks and representatives from the private sector (food industry and retailers) expressed their concern over the emergence of a black market as a consequence of food donation. They suggested that products should be returned to manufacturers or food importers to be removed from their original packaging before they have been donated to food banks or other organizations. According to their views, this would prevent the possible commercialization of donated foods in a black market (Table 1).

Representatives from food banks indicated that they implement strategies to avoid the possibility of having donated products sold in an informal market, including the selection of the types of products given to each organization or the provision of a relatively small quantity of products. These strategies were relevant when working with new and unknown beneficiary organizations. However, they stated that they usually work with the same donors and beneficiary organizations, which enables the development of a relationship of mutual trust between them (Table 1).

Organizational characteristics of Uruguayan food banks

Organizational characteristics of food banks can act as barriers and enablers for food donation [20]. For this reason, the organizational aspects of three Uruguayan food banks were analyzed considering the framework proposed by Campbell et al. [20]: culture, capacity, and practices.

Organizational culture

The organizational culture relates mainly to attitudes, perceptions, and managerial commitment regarding the nutritional quality of the donated food. Regarding the commitment to distributing healthy food, only one of the three organizations showed a strong commitment to promoting consumption of healthy food in vulnerable populations (Table 2).

Table 2.

Organizational aspects of Uruguayan food banks identified in the content analysis of the interview transcripts of three food bank representatives

Organizational aspects	Category	Examples of quotes
Culture	Nutritional quality	Our goal is to provide high nutritional quality food to the largest number of food insecure population possible, providing produce perfectly fit for consumption that would get discarded because of shape, size, color or surplus production
	Food insecurity	Once the COVID19 pandemic set in, institutions provided food sets for the families instead of serving meals in their facilities so we shifted to distributing family food sets. At first those sets were nutritionally unbalanced, too many carbohydrates. We needed help to change them, we did not have the knowledge
Capacity	Funding	This year we are implementing a new fund raising campaign trying to reach small donors, individuals who are willing to contribute on a monthly basis through their bank accounts, in order to secure a fixed monthly income and we are reaching out to private companies as well… we first doubled, and later on tripled, the number of food sets provided to families and we needed to purchase additional supplies
	Storage	As soon as a donor contacts us, a volunteer staff member contacts potential receptors before engaging into pick-up and delivery. We lack storage facilities and use our own vehicles and gasoline for transport. Sometimes we get recipients to pick up donated food directly, either at the organization facilities or at the donor retail store
Practices	Planning	We were able to have an App especially designed, through a student internship program, connecting donors, receptors and volunteers, optimizing pick-up and delivery schedules. It has helped us make the whole process more efficient

The other organizations interviewed focused mainly in food redistribution as a means to reduce food insecurity yet expressed concern regarding the nutritional quality of the food offered to NGO and charitable organizations reaching families. Efforts were made in order to provide nutritionally balanced sets of food products to these sectors of the population (Table 2).

Inconsistent donations, limited or no refrigerated storage, and lack of resources, knowledge, and funding pose a challenge to food banks regarding the nutritional quality of the food supplied. Food banks source their food through a direct approach, contacting food companies that commit to donate surplus food or receive unsolicited donations from others, making it difficult to match the nutritional quality needed and the food supplied. Reductions or bans of particular food items having an unfavorable nutritional profile had not been considered. Concerns were expressed as to whether selecting food items from donors could reduce donations and financial support.

Organizational capacity

Food donation organizations are relatively recent in Uruguay; most of them have started within the past 5 years with little or no infrastructure available, a reduced number of volunteers as staff and no long-term subsistence strategy. The growing demand of emergency food posed a challenge on these organizations, increasing demands for staff, infrastructure, and funding capacity.

New funding strategies were developed, with an active search for sponsorships in the private sector to support ongoing programs, in light of the current challenges. Food banks started fundraising campaigns seeking for small donors that would help assure a consistent monthly cash flow (Table 2).

The organization distributing fresh produce has been successful establishing partnerships with private and public actors along with funding from government agencies. Besides, receptors pay a nominal fee to cover operating costs contributing to the economical sustainability of the organization. Considering the volume of fruits and vegetables distributed monthly tripled during the past year, the organization has reached out directly to farmers to acquire surplus produce.

Limited storage space and refrigerated storage were mentioned as a barrier to provide nutritionally adequate food. As fresh produce donations increased the challenge to provide refrigerated storage in order to broaden the type and nutritional quality of foods received became a priority. However, one of these organizations still functions exclusively on the immediate delivery of food offered for donation (Table 2).

The shift from voluntary to hired staff was a goal mentioned by all of the organizations. The presence of a minimum permanent hired staff is identified as key to keep programs running and to develop long term strategies that would allow organizations to reach a larger number of receptors and offer an inventory of more nutritious foods. One of the organizations highlighted the assessment of nutritionists, acknowledging the added value these professionals would provide to the organization. However, a strong dependency on volunteer work was still observed that was seriously compromised as the pandemic unraveled. Lack of public funding and legislation promoting food donation were mentioned by the three organizations interviewed as limiting factors for their long-term sustainability. The need to rely on volunteer work along with the lack of funds for the organization of logistics was perceived as barriers to food redistribution.

Organizational practices

Food banks other than the one distributing exclusively fresh fruits and vegetables had not implemented a systematic tracking of the nutritional quality of their inventory. Limitations for an adequate planning and distribution system related mainly to the unpredictable frequency and quantities of the food products to be received. Unexpectedly large volumes with a short time span to distribution before expiration dates required food bank personnel to rush out for receptors, with little or no planning beforehand. As a stepping stone, two of the food banks had recently implemented software solutions to manage food donations (Table 2).

Considering that most staff are volunteers and available in a limited capacity, incorporating such tools has enabled food banks to redistribute surplus food efficiently at critical times such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The increase in poverty due to the pandemic led to the outburst of meal centers and community pots, increasing the demand of food supplies on all the organizations interviewed. Larger volumes of fresh produce and non-perishable food were required to feed a constantly growing population depending on these initiatives. As a means to recover and redistribute higher volumes of fresh fruits and vegetables, one of the organizations implemented gleaning practices, having volunteer teams collect leftover crops from farmers’ fields. These practices enabled organizations to meet the rising demand of donated food despite the limitations identified.

Discussion

The need for multi-sectoral approaches to reduce food waste worldwide is increasingly recognized [4, 5]. In this context, food donation has emerged as one of the strategies to manage surplus or suboptimal foods wasted in the last stages of the supply chain [14, 15]. Food donation has recently gained increasing relevance in emerging countries [5] and is expected to continue to do so as a consequence of the economic crisis generated by the COVID-19 pandemic [28, 29]. Food banks worldwide have reported increased demands, and particularly in Latin America an increase of 157% in the population accessing the food banks has been reported [40]. However, gaps in knowledge in relation to food donation in these settings exist. The present research intended to contribute to this knowledge gap by focusing on stakeholders’ views on food donation in Uruguay, high-income country in South America.

According to Uruguayan stakeholders, the negative perceived impacts of food waste are mainly related to food security, in agreement with the fact that the contribution of food waste reduction to food insecurity and the realization of the right to food has been extensively highlighted worldwide [5, 41]. The environmental aspects of food waste were not salient for Uruguayan stakeholders, despite having a central role in the food waste discussion worldwide [5, 42, 43].

Although the primary focus of food waste reduction should be placed on avoiding the generation of avoidable waste [2], Uruguayan stakeholders put emphasis on strategies to manage surplus or suboptimal foods. Food donation emerged as a central strategy for food waste reduction, which can be related to the strong perceived relationship between food waste and food security. Although food donation implies that food is actually used for human consumption instead of being wasted, it is the second most preferred option in the food recovery hierarchy — being the first priority to reduce the volume of surplus food generated [44]. These results suggest the need to increase awareness among Uruguayan stakeholders about the need for comprehensive strategies to reduce the volume of surplus food generated throughout the Uruguayan food supply chain. Although ethical issues related to food donation were not relevant, they were highlighted by a representative of the Ministry of Social Development who stressed that food waste generated by the society will be directed to the most vulnerable sectors of the population. According to Roe et al. [44], food donation perpetuates a differentiated supply chain for vulnerable people, which may contribute to perpetuating marginalization and stigmatization.

Stakeholders perceived food donation as an efficient strategy to tackle food insecurity. However, several studies have shown that food bank beneficiaries remain food insecure [23, 45–48]. A systematic review of 14 studies conducted in the USA and Canada has shown that although food banks improve access to food in the context of short-term crises, they are not able to provide an effective improvement [21, 23]. However, the relevance of food donation and banks in Latin America is expected to increase in the context of the economic crisis generated by the COVID-19 pandemic [49]. Research is needed to evaluate the effect of food donation on food security in emerging countries to inform the development of effective strategies to manage both food waste and food insecurity.

The complexity of food donation was acknowledged by Uruguayan stakeholders, who identified several barriers for its implementation related to economic considerations, the characteristics of the donated products, legal and commercial considerations, and organizational characteristics of food banks. Although most barriers were aligned with results from previous studies conducted in developed countries [13, 50–52], some specificities to the Uruguayan context were also identified.

The financial burden of food donation for both donors and food banks emerged as a major barrier. Representatives from the private sector stressed the need to reduce the costs associated with food donation, as it would be easier and cheaper for them to destroy the products. In a similar vein, representatives from food banks stressed that lack of funding and reliance on voluntary work acted as a barrier for the development of their activities. These issues have been previously raised by other authors when analyzing food donation in European countries [14, 22, 51, 53]. Two well-known approaches were proposed to make the costs of food donation more convenient than final disposal of waste: tax exemptions and asking beneficiaries to pay a minimum price for the products they receive. Although financial support from the government to food banks did not emerge as a salient enabler for Uruguayan stakeholders, one of the food banks was receiving funding from the Uruguayan government to improve access to food in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. This approach has also been reported in developed countries [13].

The safety and nutritional characteristics of the donated products were the major barrier for governmental stakeholders related to public health. Concerns over the safety of the donated products were the most frequent, which were reinforced by organizational characteristics of food banks (i.e., limited storage space and refrigerated storage). According to governmental stakeholders, Uruguayan date labelling regulations hinder food donation as it would not be feasible to identify which products are still appropriate for consumption after expiration. This stresses the need to introduce double date marking on food labels (i.e., “use by” and “best before” dates), as it is currently done in Europe [54]. This double date marking would allow products past their “best before” date based on sensory quality to be donated, while products past their “use by” date based on safety would not be able to be donated or marketable. However, it should be noted that these double date marking could generate confusion among retailers, food banks, and beneficiaries [55]. Therefore, changes in date marking regulations should be accompanied by communication campaigns to avoid potential misunderstandings [54].

Another major barrier for food donation was related to the nutritional characteristics of the donated products. Governmental stakeholders stress that food donation would encourage consumption of ultra-processed products with excessive content of nutrients associated with non-communicable diseases among the most vulnerable sectors of the population, especially children. This issue was deemed particularly relevant considering the high prevalence of overweight and obesity in the country, as well as the marked increased in the consumption of ultra-processed products experienced in the last decade [56]. Concerns over the nutritional quality of the foods provided by food banks have been raised by several authors [20, 24, 57]. Research has shown that the foods distributed by food banks to low-income beneficiaries tend to be processed and nutrient poor, whereas fruits and vegetables tend to be uncommon [24, 58, 59]. Beneficiaries from food banks have been reported to have a low consumption of fruits and vegetables, grains, cereals, dairy products, and meat [21, 43, 60, 61]. In order to overcome this barrier, stakeholders stressed the need to introduce nutritional requirements for the foods that could be donated and referred to the protocol developed by the Ministry of Social Development to handle food donations to the State in the context of the pandemic [62].

Engagement with food banks has also been suggested as a potential strategy to improve the nutritional quality of the donated products [21, 63]. In this sense, the organizational culture and of food banks seems to largely influence the characteristics of the donated products, as previously reported by Campbell et al. [20]. In the present case study, one of the food banks was devoted towards the recovery of suboptimal fruits and vegetables, whereas the others were mainly oriented towards the re-distribution of packaged products donated by food companies. Food banks in direct contact with the food industry are likely to be focused on ultra-processed products, as recently reported by Antúnez et al. [64] when analyzing the digital marketing strategies implemented by the industry of ultra-processed products in Uruguay in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. For these food banks the implementation of nutrition policies would represent a major obstacle and jeopardize their relationship with donors and partners in the communities [65]. Organizational capacity was also identified as a determinant of the nutritional characteristics of the donated products, as limited storage space and refrigerated storage hinder management of fresh produce. In this sense, improvements in the food storage facilities and training programs to the staff of organizations on topics related to nutrition and food preservation could contribute to improve the nutritional characteristics of the products managed by food banks [14, 21, 43].

The legal and commercial consequences of food donation also emerged as a barrier for food donation. First of all, representatives from public health stressed the need to introduce changes in Uruguayan legislation to ensure that all actors involved in the process of food donation must comply with the same regulations regarding health and food safety. In this sense, European legislation requires the organizations that receive and distribute donations share the same obligations, in terms of food handling, as for retailers and [25, 53]. However, the experience of European countries stresses the need to ensure that organizations and volunteers have sufficient knowledge about the legal and safety requirements of the donated products [14, 48]. In this sense, the association of Dutch food banks has developed a manual with recommendations about food safety, requirements in terms of infrastructure, temperature control, personal hygiene and waste disposal [14].

Another legal consideration raised by private stakeholders was related to the protection of donor liability, as previously implemented in several countries [13]. Several authors have stressed the positive effect of Good Samaritan Laws in encouraging donations, as donors lose the fear of having negative legal consequences or their reputation damaged due to the practices of food banks [13, 14, 48, 53].

Finally, private stakeholders recognized the fear that a black market could be generated as a consequence of food donation. They stated that secondary markets could arise, where their foods could be sold at a lower price. Although this barrier has also been identified in European countries [14, 48], it is expected to be more relevant in emerging countries due the higher levels of informality. One of the enablers suggested to overcome this barrier was the introduction of changes in packaging before the distribution of donated products to food banks and beneficiaries. However, this procedure entails investment of additional financial and resources, which would increase the cost and environmental footprint of the products. Instead, trust relationships between donors and food banks, as well as clear and detailed legal frameworks could contribute to ensure that the donated products reach the target population.

Conclusions

The present work contributed to the literature by exploring the views of key stakeholders on food donation in an emerging Latin American country. Although food donation was positively perceived, the complexity of the topic was acknowledged, and several barriers were identified. Strategies to reduce the financial and legal burden of food donation for both donors and food banks are needed to promote food donation in the country. In addition, nutritional requirements for the foods that could be donated seem necessary to prevent an increase in the consumption of ultra-processed products with excessive content of nutrients associated with non-communicable diseases among the most vulnerable sectors of the population, especially children.

Considering a legal framework to promote food donation is still under discussion in the country, the current law proposal could benefit from the insights of the present work. A bill addressing the identified barriers to food donation would strengthen existing partnerships between government, food recovery organizations, and private stakeholders.

Appendix Question guide used for the in-depth interviews

Question

What is your view about food waste in Uruguay? How do you think food waste can influence on the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals? What strategies are being implemented in the country to reduce food waste? What other strategies can be implemented? Are you familiar with the proposition about food donation that has been presented at the Parliament? What do you think about it? What do you think about food donation? What are the barriers for food donation? What strategies could act as enablers for food donation? Additional questions for food banks When was the organization created? What are its main objectives and activities? How are the activities organized? How is it financed? What are the main difficulties you have faced to develop your activities?

Author contribution

AG, GA, JAW, and MRC conceptualized and designed the research; PM carried out the interviews, documentary analysis, and data coding. PM, AG, GA, and JAW analyzed and interpreted the data. PM, AG, and GA were major contributors in writing the manuscript. All the authors reviewed, edited, and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

Funding was received from Comisión Sectorial de Investigación Científica (Universidad de la República, Uruguay), Espacio Interdisciplinario (Universidad de la República, Uruguay) and Instituto Nacional de Alimentación (Ministerio de Desarrollo Social, Uruguay).

Data availability

Not applicable.

Declarations

Ethics approval

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Chemistry (Universidad de la República, Uruguay) under number 101900–000673-17.

Consent to participate

Written informed consent was obtained from participants prior to the interviews.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.