Table 2.
Characteristics of the studies.
| Reference | Type of study | Number of participants/ gestation age (weeks) | Diagnostic equipment | Biometric parameters | Main results | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Otto et al. 1991 USA (21) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 134/14–39 | 2D ultrasound | Mandible length | Mandible length = −2.41 + 0.297 GA-0.0027GA2 | |
| Mandible length = −0.198 + 0.565BPD | ||||||
| Mandible length = −0.2346 + 0.156HC | ||||||
| Mandible length = 0.1399 + 0.781FL-0.0015FL2 | ||||||
| Chitty et al. 1993 UK (15) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 184/12–28 | 2D ultrasound | Mandible length | Mandible length = 46.516 + 15.735 | |
| Mandible length = −1.13911 + 0.54018BPD | ||||||
| Mandible length = −1.61327 + 0.14423HC | ||||||
| Mandible length = 5.4977 + 0.52551 FL + 0.0000314FL3 | ||||||
| Watson et al. 1993 USA (22) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 204/14–40 | 2D ultrasound | TD | TD: positive and linear correlation with GA, BPD and FL | |
| APD | APD: positive and linear correlation with GA, BPD and FL | |||||
| Sivan et al. 1997 USA (23) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 200/16–38 | 2D ultrasound | Chin length | Chin length = −6.5 + 0.7GA | |
| Paladini et al. 1999 Italy (16) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 262/12–37 | 2D ultrasound | APD | APD: positive and linear correlation with GA and BPD | |
| TD | TD: positive and linear correlation with GA and BPD | |||||
| Jaw index | Mean jaw index = 32.2 ± 4.9, 5th Percentiles = 24.0, 95th Percentiles = 41.0 | |||||
| Rotten et al. 2002 France (24) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 371/18–28 | 3D ultrasound | For variables shown to be independent of GA, the mean and standard deviation (SD) were computed. The mean ± 2 SD interval defined the normal population. | ||
| IFA: no correlation with GA, mean IFA = 65.5 ± 8.13 (°), IFA < 49.2° defined micrognathia. | ||||||
| MD = 7.76 + 0.74GA | ||||||
| IFA | MX = 7.41 + 0.75GA | |||||
| MD/MX: no correlation with GA, mean MD/MX = 1.017 ± 0.116, MDW/MXW < 0.785 defined micrognathia. | ||||||
| MDW | ||||||
| MXW | ||||||
| MDW/MXW | ||||||
| Tsai et al. 2004 Taiwan (25) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 183/15–35 | 3D ultrasound | MBL | MBL: positive and linear correlation with GA | |
| Chin index | Chin index: positive and linear correlation with GA | |||||
| Gull et al. 2005 Israel (26) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 153/13–42 | 2D ultrasound | Philtrum length | Philtrum length = exp (2.778577-23.476723/GA) | |
| Chin length | Chin length = exp (3.7922–28.043/GA) | |||||
| Chin/philtrum length | Chin/philtrum length = 1.7931 + 0.0206GA | |||||
| Roelfsema et al. 2006 Netherlands (27) | Prospective, cohort study | 126/18–34 | 3D ultrasound | Maxillary protrusion | Mean maxillary protrusion = 81.08° (80.34° to 81.82°) | |
| Mandibular protrusion | Mean mandibular protrusion = 67.25° (66.65° to 67.86°) | |||||
| Maxillary corpus length | Maxillary corpus length = 19.33 + 1.373GA-0.0206GA2 | |||||
| Mandibular corpus length | Mandibular corpus length =15.58 + 1.154GA + (−0.0102) GA2 | |||||
| Maxillary/mandibular corpus length | Maxillary/mandibular corpus length = 0.09-0.0019GA | |||||
| Mid-facial depth | Mid-facial depth = 31.22 + 2.011GA-0.0163GA2 | |||||
| Lower facial depth | Lower facial depth = 28.97 + 1.886GA | |||||
| Mid-facial/lower facial depth | Mid-facial/lower facial depth = 1.08 + 0.0039GA | |||||
| Maxillary curvature | Maxillary curvature = 86.46 + 5.93GA-0.039GA2 | |||||
| Mandibular curvature | Mandibular curvature = 80.96 + 5.47GA | |||||
| Maxillary/mandibular curvature | Maxillary/mandibular curvature = 1.07-0.0021GA | |||||
| Zalel et al. 2006 Israel (28) | Prospective, cross-sectional study | 480/11–31 | 2D ultrasound | TD/APD | TD/APD = 1.7759-0.0105GA (1.3 to 1.5) | |
| Borenstein et al. 2007 USA (29) | Retrospective, cross-sectional study | 200/11–13+6 | 3D ultrasound | FMFA | FMFA = 93.34-0.200CRL (°) | |
| MMFA | MMFA = 128.1-0.303CRL (°) | |||||
| FMFA/MMFA | Mean FMFA/MMFA = 0.74 ± 0.07 (SD = 0.070) | |||||
| Palit et al. 2008 Belgium (17) | Prospective, cross-sectional study | 81/18–35 | 2D ultrasound | FNMA | Mean FNMA = 146.4 ± 2.77 (°), 5th Percentiles = 142°, 95th Percentiles = 151° | |
| Jong-Pleij et al. 2011 Netherlands (30) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 241/16–36 | 3D ultrasound | MNMA | Mean = 13.53 (range, 8.96–19.58) (°), 5th Percentiles = 10.39°, 95th Percentiles = 16.91° | |
| Luedders et al. 2011 Germany (19) | Retrospective, cross-sectional study | 54a/11+5 –35+6 | 2D ultrasound | IFA | Mean IFA = 44.8 (range, 27–49) (°) | |
| FNMA | Mean FNMA = 123.3 (range, 100–134) (°) | |||||
| Jong-Pleij et al. 2012 Netherlands (31) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 237/16–36 | 2D ultrasound | FP line | Zero: 222 cases (93.7%), positive: 15 cases (6.3%), F distance = 2.8 mm (2.1–3.6 mm) | |
| Sepulveda et al. 2012 Spain (32) | Prospective and retrospective cross-sectional study | 204/11–13 | 2D and 3D ultrasound | Mandibular gap | Mandibular gap was identified in all 204 normal fetuses, mandibular gap = 0.435 + 0.033CRL | |
| Nemec et al. 2015 Austria (33) | Retrospective cross-sectional study | 355/20–36 | MRI | APD | APD = 0.281 + 0.989GA | |
| IFA | No correlation with GA, Mean IFA = 67.7 (range, 50.3-86.1) (°), 5th Percentiles = 55.6°, 95th Percentiles = 79.0° | |||||
| Jaw index | Mean jaw index = 39.9 (range, 29.0–52.4), 5th Percentiles = 33.5, 95th Percentiles = 46.8 | |||||
| Kooiman et al. 2018 USA (34) | Retrospective case-control study | 116/25.6 ± 5.1 | MRI | PRS group | IFA Jaw index OPS | Mean IFA = 41.2 ± 11.7 (°) |
| n = 27 | Mean jaw index = 35.1 ± 7.7 | |||||
| Mean OPS = 4.3 ± 2.3 | ||||||
| Micrognathia group n = 35 | Mean IFA = 53.5 ± 9.3 (°) | |||||
| Mean jaw index = 40.5 ± 5.2 | ||||||
| Mean OPS = 5.8 ± 2.0 | ||||||
| Control group | Mean IFA = 59.9 ± 8.6 (°) | |||||
| n = 54 | Mean jaw index = 42.4 ± 4.8 | |||||
| Mean OPS = 7.1 ± 1.7 | ||||||
| Resnick et al. 2018 USA (35) | Retrospective case-control study | 162/25.6 ± 4.9 | MRI | Three variables were independent predictors of RS: (1) Veau I/II cleft palate (OR = 38.8), (2) TSI (>0.8; OR = 8.7), and (3) IFA(<48°; OR = 14.5). | ||
| Lu et al. 2019 Hong Kong (36) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 542/16–31 | 2D ultrasound | FMA | FMA = 60.3511 + 1.0895GA-0.0004488GA3 (°), FMA increased slightly with gestation from 16 weeks till approximately 28–31 weeks, at 1° to 2° per week, and decreased minimally thereafter. | |
| FNMA | FNMA = 126.3346 + 0.9529GA-0.0003263GA3 (°), FNMA increased slightly with gestation from 16 weeks till approximately 28-31 weeks, at 1° to 2° per week, and decreased minimally thereafter. | |||||
| IFA | IFA = 20.393 + 2.8001GA-0.001033GA3 (°), IFA increased slightly with gestation from 16 weeks till approximately 28-31 weeks, at 1° to 2° per week, and decreased minimally thereafter. | |||||
| MNMA | MNMA: no correlation between MNMA and CRL, MNMA = 12.4 with ±2SD of 8.0 and 16.8 (°) | |||||
| FP line | Zero: 513 cases (86.7%), positive: 70 cases (11.8%), negative: 9 cases (1.5%), F distance = 2.9 mm (1.2-5.8 mm) | |||||
| Nguyen et al. 2020 USA (37) | Retrospective case-control study | 94/24.9 ± 5.2 | 2D ultrasound and MRI | PRS group n = 25 | IFA | Ultrasound: Mean IFA = 39.7 ± 7.8 (°) |
| MRI: Mean IFA = 41.9 ± 11.8 (°) | ||||||
| Micrognathia group n = 29 | Ultrasound: Mean IFA = 48.1 ± 8.6 (°) | |||||
| MRI: Mean IFA = 53.6 ± 8.7 (°) | ||||||
| CLP group n = 23 | Ultrasound: Mean IFA = 58.8 ± 9.3 (°) | |||||
| MRI: Mean IFA = 58.1 ± 10.2 (°) | ||||||
| Control group n = 17 | Ultrasound: Mean IFA = 59.3 ± 6.9 (°) | |||||
| MRI: Mean IFA = 61.4 ± 9.2 (°) | ||||||
| Toren et al. 2020 Israel(38) | Retrospective cohort study | 255/24–36 | MRI | IFA | No correlation with GA, mean IFA = 59.597° | |
| APD | APD = −0.836 + 1.007GA | |||||
| MVL | MVL = −8.115 + 1.954GA | |||||
| Bruce et al. 2021 USA (39) | Retrospective case-control study | 96/18–22 | 2D ultrasound | PRS group n = 48 | FNMA FMA AO | Mean FNMA = 129.3 ± 8.6 (°) |
| Mean FMA = 63.2 ± 9.2 (°) | ||||||
| Mean AO = 3.9 ± 1.4 | ||||||
| Control group n = 48 | Mean FNMA = 137.4 ± 3.2 (°) | |||||
| Mean FMA = 74.8 ± 6.1 (°) | ||||||
| Mean AO = 2.1 ± 0.9 | ||||||
| Ji et al. 2022 China (40) | Prospective cross-sectional study | 800/11–13+6 | 2D ultrasound | IFA | No correlation with CRL, mean IFA = 64.91 ± 6.73 (°), 5th | |
| Percentiles = 54°, 95th Percentiles = 79.69° | ||||||
| FNMA | FNMA = 163.2–2.94CRL (°) | |||||
| FMFA | FMFA = 92.53–1.71CRL (°) | |||||
| MMFA | MMFA = 118.5–3.75CRL (°) | |||||
| MNMA | MNMA = 9.55 ± 2.84 (°), 5th Percentiles = 4.80°, 95th Percentiles = 14.20° | |||||
| Zero: 177 cases (22.1%), positive: 623 cases (77.9%), negative: 0 cases. | ||||||
| FP line | Obvious mandibular gap: 795 cases (99.4%), narrow mandibular gap: 5 cases (0.6%) | |||||
| Mandibular gap | ||||||
| Li et al. 2022 China (20) | Retrospective cross-sectional study | 82/11–13+6 | 2D ultrasound | TD | TD = −15.615 + 1.987GA | |
| APD | APD = −8.557 + 1.101GA | |||||
| APD/TD | APD/TD = 0.603–0.003GA | |||||
| Mandible length | Mandible length = 0.861 + 0.137CRL | |||||
| IFA | IFA: positive correlation with CRL, median IFA = 66.5°, 25th percentiles = 62.5°, 75th percentiles = 70.4° | |||||
a
54 fetuses with micrognathia.
GA, gestational age; BPD, biparietal diameter; HC, head circumference; FL, femur length; TD, transverse diameter; APD, anteroposterior diameter; IFA, inferior facial angle; MDW, mandible width; MXW, maxilla width; MBL, mandibular body length; FMFA, frontomaxillary facial angle; MMFA, mandibulomaxillary facia angle; CRL, crown rump length; FNMA, fronto-naso-mental angle; MNMA, maxilla-nasion-mandible angle; FP, fetal profile; PRS, Pierre Robin Sequence; OPS, oropharyngeal space; FMA, facial maxillary angle; CLP, cleft lip and palate; MVL, mandibular vertebral length; AO, alveolar overjet; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging.