TABLE 1.

Pharmacological effects of SS.

System	Effect	Mechanism	Extracts or compounds	Models	In vitro/vivo	Treatment	References
Respiratory	Airway allergy reduction	Reduce TGF-β expression, MAPK phosphorylation, MMP9 and MMP2 protease activity	SS patch	Guinea pig asthma model	In vivo	0.0625–0.5 mg ml−1	Li (2017)
		Downregulation of TGF-β1/Smad 3 pathway	SS patch	BALB/c Chronic asthma mice model	In vivo	0.5 g	Liu et al. (2017)
		Relaxes airway smooth muscle, increases lung and airway volume	Sinapine	Guinea pig asthma model	In vivo	7.4–74 mg kg−1	Wang et al. (2011)
	Cough suppressant inhibition	Inhibition of the receptors in the cough reflex arc or the vagus nerve of the afferent cough impulses	4-Hydroxybenzyl cyanide	Cough model	In vivo	0.031 g kg−1	Yu (2005)
Digestive	Liver protection	Inhibition of BRD4 expression	Sinapic acid	C57BL/6 mice, AML-12 cells	In vivo, In vitro	20 mg kg−1, 20 μM	Chu et al. (2021)
		Inhibition of liver steatosis	Sinapine	C57BL/6 mice	In vivo	500 mg kg−1	Li et al. (2019)
		NF-κB inhibits Nrf2/HO-1-mediated activation of antioxidant enzymes and apoptosis inhibition	Sinapic acid	Hepatotoxicity model	In vivo	20, 40 mg kg−1	Ahmad et al. (2021)
		Reduced expression of TGF-β1, Smad4, p-Smad 2/3/Smad 2/3, p-NF-κB-p65/NF-κB-p65, IL-1β, IL-6 and p-AKT/AKT	SS extract	Hepatic fibrosis model	In vivo	0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g kg−1	Cao et al. (2018)
	Anti- adipocyte browning	Stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis through AMPK, p38 MAPK and CREB pathways leads to white adipocyte browning	Sinapic acid	3T3-L1 cells	In vitro	1–20 μM	Bae and Kim (2020)
Nervous	Protective neurological activity	Activation of BDNF/TrkB/ERK signaling pathway	Sinapic acid	PC12 cells	In vitro	50–100 μM	Xue et al. (2021)
		Enhance cell viability and inhibit oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress	Sinapic acid	SH-SY5Y cells	In vitro	50–800 μM	Tungalag and Yang (2021)
		Promotes CREB mRNA transcription	Sinapic acid	PC12 cells	In vitro	100 μM	Xue et al. (2022)
Cardiovascular	Anti-hypertension	Inhibition of TNF-α production	Sinapine thiocyanate	Insulin resistance model	In vivo	10, 30, and 90 mg kg−1 d−1	Huang et al. (2018)
		Inhibition of NLRP3 inflammatory vesicle activation	Sinapine thiocyanate	Spontaneously hypertensive rats, HUVECs	In vivo, In vitro	8.54 mg kg−1, 50 mg L−1	Liu et al. (2020)
	Cardioprotective activity	Reduce oxidative stress and Ca+, anti-cardiac mitochondrial damage	Sinapic acid	Myocardial infarction rats	In vivo	12 mg kg−1	Stanely Mainzen Prince et al. (2020)
Immunity	Anti-inflammatory effect	Inhibition of NLRP3 inflammatory vesicle activation	Sinapic acid	Bone marrow-derived macrophages	In vitro	100–200 μM	Lee et al. (2021)
		Increase the mRNA expression levels of ZO-1, Occludin, Claudin-1 and decrease the mRNA expression levels of TLR4, NF-kB, MLCK, IL-8, IL-1β	Sinapic acid	Caco-2 cells	In vitro	5, 10, 15 μM	Zhang et al. (2019)
Reproductive	Anti-testicular damage activity	Reduce MDA, PC and NO levels and increase SOD and GSH- Px activity	Sinapic acid	Testicular torsion rat model	In vivo	10, 20 mg kg−1	Unsal et al. (2021)
	Anti-prostatic hyperplasia activity	Reduce foreskin gland wet weight and serum acid phosphatase activity	Sinapine, β-sitosterol and sinalbin	Prostate hyperplasia model	In vivo	8, 16 mg kg−1	Wu et al. (2003a); Wu et al. (2003b)
Tumors	Anti-cancer activity	Increase intracellular ferrous iron, lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species in non-small cell lung cancer cells; downregulation of SLC7A11	Sinapine	NSCLC cells, bronchial epithelial cells	In vitro	0–20 μM	Shao et al. (2022)
		Inhibition of anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-2, promotion of pro-apoptotic factor Bax expression	Sinapine	H22 cells	In vitro	LC50 = 53.97 μg L−1	Nan (2010)
		Reduce protein expression of PTGS1, PTGS2, Bcl-2, MMP-2 and MMP-9 and increase protein expression of Bax in hepatoma cells SMMC-7721	Sinapine thiocyanate	SMMC-7721 cells	In vitro	0–100 μM	Chen et al. (2020)
		Reduce the expression of p-AKT (S473), β-catenin, N-cadherin, Vimentin and PCNA in skin squamous carcinoma A431 and Colo-16 cells; increase the expression of E-cadherin	Sinapine thiocyanate	A431 cells, Colo-16 cells	In vitro	20 μM	Su et al. (2021)
		Inhibition of p-glycoprotein expression	Sinapine	Caco-2 cells	In vitro	0–200 μM	Guo et al. (2014)
Other	Hypoglycemic effect	Inhibition of TNF-α production	Sinapine thiocyanate	Insulin resistance model	In vivo	10, 30, and 90 mg kg−1 d−1	Huang et al. (2018)
	Kidney protective effect	Upregulation of PPAR-γ expression	Sinapic acid	Rat nephrotoxic model	In vivo	20, 40 mg kg−1	Singh et al. (2020)
	Anti-oxidant effect	Scavenging superoxide anion free radicals	Sinapine thiocyanate	Superoxide radicals	In vitro	IC50 = 0.135 mM	Li et al. (2012)
		Scavenging DPPH activity, scavenging hydrogen peroxide radicals and scavenging NO radicals	Sinapic acid	Human skin fibroblasts	In vitro	IC50 = 32.1 μM	Cos et al. (2002)