Skip to main content
. 2022 Dec 28;117(3):477–489. doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2022.12.008

FIGURE 4.

FIGURE 4

In vitro digestibility, microstructural changes, and in vivo serum amino acid responses after ingestion of control and CCP-enriched breads. Digestibility curves show maltose (A) and free amino acid (B) release during in vitro digestion of control (0% CCP) and 30% and 60% CCP-enriched breads. Each of the data points in (A) and (B) are the mean of at least duplicate digestions, with curves fitted by nonlinear regression (solid line) with 95% confidence bands (dashed lines) shown for the latter. In vivo human study data (C) show postprandial increases in total serum amino acid concentrations after consumption of 0% (control, n = 20), 30% (n = 20), and 60% (n = 19) CCP breads, plotted over time as means ± SEM. Bar charts show incremental area under the curve (iAUC, mean ± SEM) for serum amino acid responses (D). Time × treatment effects for amino acid data (C, D) were statistically significant, P < 0.001, as determined by the mixed-effects ANOVA with Tukey post hoc analysis. Significant differences were noted between 0% CCP and 30% CCP (aP < 0.05), between 0% CCP and 60% CCP (bP < 0.05), and between 30% CCP and 60% CCP (cP < 0.05). ns, P > 0.05; ∗P < 0.05; ∗∗P < 0.01; and ∗∗∗P < 0.001. Light micrographs (E), stained with Lugol iodine (E1–E6) and toluidine blue (E3, E6) show presence of intact plant cells with encapsulated starch from CCP-enriched breads during oral (E1) and gastric (E2) digestion, with some cell rupture evident at the end of the duodenal phase (E3). No intact cells were present in control bread, and extensive wheat starch granule digestion is evident (E4–E6). Scale bars = 100 μm.