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. 2023 Apr 26:1–16. Online ahead of print. doi: 10.1007/s00432-023-04805-z

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© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023, Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

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Fig. 2 — Delivery platforms for vaccination. A Ex vivo loading of dendritic cells. Monocyte-derived DCs can be generated from patients’ peripheral blood cells. Isolated immature DCs are cultured with maturation factors ex vivo, then loaded with antigen-encoding mRNAs via electroporation, and reinfused into the patient intravenously. B Lipid-based nano-vectors. Antigen-encoding mRNAs are complexed with cationic or ionizable lipids, cholesterol, and phospholipid to formulate a spheroid nanoparticle. Superficial lipids are then modified with PEG to form a colloidal barrier with a protective function. PEG polyethylene glycol