Table 2.
Recent and noteworthy studies focused on cell–ECM–material interactions in cartilage.
| Tissue | Model | Material | Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cartilage | Rat bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (rBMSCs) cultured with cryo-ground decellularized cartilage ECM. | Cryo-ground decellularized cartilage ECM. | Chemically decellularized cartilage (DCC) particles significantly outperformed TGF-β in chondroinduction of the rBMSCs. Collagen II gene expression was more than an order of magnitude greater compared to controls [74]. |
| Porcine methacryl-modified solubilized and devitalized cartilage (MeSDVC) hydrogels. | Cryo-ground decellularized cartilage ECM methacrylated with glycidyl methacrylate (GM) and methacrylic anhydride (MA). | Methacrylation of the ECM increased printability of the MeSDVC hydrogels by creating paste-like consistency. Hydrogel stiffness increased to physiologically useful ranges [98]. |
|
| BMSCs grown in dual-stage crosslinked hyaluronic acid-based bioink that was covalently linked to transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1). | Hyaluronic acid (HA) bioink with covalently bonded TGF-β1. | Tethered TGF-β1 maintained functionality post three-dimensional printing and generated high quality cartilaginous tissues without exogenous growth factors [99]. | |
| BMSCs grown in porcine photocrosslinkable methacrylated cartilage ECM-based hydrogel bioink (cECM-MA). | Decellularized MA- methacrylated cartilage ECM bioink. | BMSCs were viable post-printing and underwent chondrogenesis in vitro, generating tissue rich in sulphated glycosaminoglycans and collagens [100]. | |
| Rat chondrocytes grown in genipin-crosslinked gelatin scaffolds with varying porosity. | Genipin-crosslinked gelatin scaffolds. | Chondrocytes proliferated and readily generated ECM with pore sizes of 250 and 500 μm [101]. | |
| hMSCs grown in tunicate exoskeleton-derived dECM. | Tunicate dECM. | Tunicate ECM was decellularized while retaining the honeycombed-shaped microstructure that improved metabolic activity, cell proliferation, and chondrogenic differentiation in hMSCs [79]. | |
| Rat chondrocytes grown in high concentration collagen bioprinted hydrogel scaffolds. | An amount of 4% collagen hydrogel bioink. | Subcutaneous implantation of the bioprinted scaffold resulted in cartilage-like tissue formation in rats as early as one week post implantation [78]. | |
| BMSCs grown in polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) and ECM electro-written hydrogel. | High porosity PEDGA and porcine-derived ECM electro-written scaffold. | Electro-written PEDGA and ECM scaffold induced chondrogenesis and had anti-inflammatory effects [79]. | |
| Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) grown in cartilage dECM and waterborne polyurethane (WPU) scaffolds, using low-temperature deposition manufacturing (LDM). | Cartilage dECM and WPU. | Hierarchical macro-microporous dECM- WPU scaffolds regenerated hyaline cartilage in a rabbit articular cartilage microfracture model [69]. | |
| Mouse chondrocytes in human bone marrow-derived MSC-ECM (hBMSC). | hBMSC-ECM. | In vivo subcutaneous implantation of hBMSC-ECM scaffold in mice improved chondrocyte proliferation and development of a bioactive matrix [68]. | |
| Decellularized allogeneic hyaline cartilage graft (dLhCG) for porcine knee repair. | Decellularized pure hyaline-like cartilaginous ECM. | dLhCG resulted in superior efficacy in articular cartilage repair, surpassing living autologous chondrocyte-based cartilaginous engraftment repair methods [65]. | |
| Self-assembled articular cartilage constructs grown in bovine femoral condyle superficial zone cartilage ECM. | Bovine femoral condyle superficial zone cartilage ECM. | Extracted cartilage ECM reduced friction coefficients of the self-assembled articular cartilage constructs [63]. |