Table 3.
Impact of micronutrients on NAFLD.
| Type of Micronutrient | Effects on Liver | Effects on Intestinal Microbiota | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Se | 1. Administration of a combination of Se and zinc improved the lipid profile, liver functions, and liver steatosis in rats | [206] | |
| 2. Se and probiotics reversed the negative effect of feeding in mice on HFD and improved liver functions and steatosis | [207] | ||
| 3. Decreases the number of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and liver fibrosis induced by CCl4 treatment in mice | [209] | ||
| Vitamin A | 1. Retinoic acid (RA) administration has been shown to be an effective antioxidant by reducing mitochondrial ROS and by increasing SOD2 in mice | [282] | |
| 2. Protects the liver against hepatic steatosis itself, as well as against liver damage in NAFLD populations | [283] | ||
| 3. Reduces the release of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) | [285] | ||
| 4. Suppresses the activation of hepatic stellate cells and fibrogenesis | |||
| Vitamin C | 1. Reduces hepatic fatty acid load by promoting the gene expression of PPARα-dependent β-fatty acid genes in HFD-induced NAFLD mice | [286] | |
| 2. Attenuates steatosis and NAFLD in mice | |||
| 3. Improves adiponectin levels and reduces liver TG levels and thus prevents NASH progression in NAFLD patients | [288] | ||
| 4. Significant inverse association between ingested Vitamin C and NAFLD | [289] | ||
| Vitamin E | 1. Normalizes cholesterol metabolism and reduces inflammation and fibrosis associated with oxidative stress | [292] | |
| 2. Attenuates fructose diet-induced NAFLD by activating the Nrf2/carboxylesterase 1 pathway involved in lipogenesis | [293] | ||
| 3. Is considered an effective inhibitor of steatohepatitis | [295] | ||
| 4. Inhibits the expression of genes responsible for fibrosis, inflammation, and apoptosis | [296] | ||
| 5. Improves the blood levels of ALT and AST | [299] | ||
| 6. Responsible for regulating the cellular signaling of different enzymes essential in molecular signal translation, such as 5-lipoxygenase, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), protein kinase C (PKC), and protein phosphate 2A (PP2A) | [300] | ||
| 7. Stimulates the expression of adiponectin | [302] | ||
| 8. Induces favorable modifications in intestinal disturbed microbiota by the increases of portal LPS | |||
| Vitamin D | 1. Protects the liver against the inflammation induced by different chronic hepatitises | [306] | |
| 2. Increases insulin sensitivity | [307] | ||
| 3. Induces anti-fibrotic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cirrhotic properties | [308] | ||
| 4. Decreases secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 | [314] | ||
| 5. Decreases TG levels in NAFLD patients | [315] | ||
| 6. Improves blood lipid profile | [317] | ||
| Vitamin B12 | 1. Affects the disruption of mitochondrial metabolism, involved in the pathology of NAFLD | [318] | |
| 2. Therapeutic effects regarding the pathology of NAFLD | [320] | ||
| 3. Significantly decreases the serum concentration of MDA | [322] | ||
| 4. Reduces fasting blood glucose (FBG) | [323] |
LDL, Low-density lipoprotein; HDL, High-density lipoprotein; VLDL, Very low-density lipoprotein; TNF-α, Tumor necrosis alpha; NF-κB, Nuclear Factor-Kappa beta; ROS, Reactive oxygen species; AST, Aspartate aminotransferase; ALT, Alanine transaminase; NASH, Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis; NAFLD, Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; TGs, Triglycerides; MDA, Malondialdehyde; IL-1β, Interleukin-1 beta; IL-6, Interleukin-6; 5-LOX, 5-lipoxygenase; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; PKC, Protein kinase C; PP2A, Protein Phosphate 2A; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; PPARα, Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor alpha.