Table 4.

Influence of NE challenge on intestinal villi morphology and the regulatory effects of probiotics.

S/N	Response to NE Challenge	Probiotic Strains	Response to Dietary Probiotics	Ref
1	Hyperemia of lamina propria and necrotic intestinal epithelial cells	B. licheniformis	Restored it	[12]
2	Reduced V/C ratio	Multi strains of Lactobacillus	Increased V/C ratio	[13]
3	Decreased goblet number and no effect on jejunal VH, CD and V/C ratio	Multi strain	No significant effect on VH, CD and V/CD	[19]
4	Reduced villi length, necrosis of intestinal villi and hyperplasia	B. subtilis	Restored villi morphology	[22]
5	Reduced VH/CD, goblet cell number, VH and IAP activity	B. coagulans	Restored the increased negative effect	[25]
6	Damaged ileal tissue, loss of villi architecture, mucosal damage and decreased density and length of villi enterocytes	L. plantarum 1.2567 powder	Restored it and reduced NO and MPO activity in the ileum mucosa	[30]
7	Irregular villi, oedma, separation from basement membrane and goblet cell metaplasia	B. subtilis	Restored the villi architecture, and reduced oedema	[32]
8	Irregular villi structure and shorter jejunal villi length	B. subtilis DSM29784	Restored it	[95]
9	Reduced villi length and VH/CD	B. licheniformis	Restored it	[109]
10	Irregular villi shape, swelling of villus tip and reduced villi length	B. amyloliquefaciens, BLCC1-0238	Restored it	[110]
11	Increased intestinal histopathology	E. faecium	Increased PCNA-positive cells and reduced TUNEL -positive cells	[112]
12	Damaged villi, shedding of epithelial cells and congested lamina propria	L. johnsonii BS15	Restored it	[114]
13	Reduced villi length	L. johnsonii, Bacillus	Restored it	[116]
14	Increased cecal mucosal thickness	B. subtilis DSM 32315	Decreased CD, TLI and EI; increased V/C ratio	[117]
15	Disruption in villi crypt and lamina propria; reduced villi length	Bacteriophage	Restored it	[118]
16	Reduced villi length	Bacillus. Surfactin (fermented product)	Restored villi morphology	[119]
17	Reduced villi length	B. licheniformis fermented product	Restored villi morphology	[120]
18	Reduced villi length and increased duodenal crypt depth	B. licheniformis	Increased villi length and reduced crypt depth	[136]
19	Decreased jejunal height	Multi strain	Improved jejunal V/C ratio	[137]